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44The
French
chemist,
Chevallier,
in
his
treatise
on
the\"sophistications\"
of
commodities,
enumerates
for
many
of
the
600
or
more
articles
which
he
passes
in
review,
10,
20,
30
different
methods
of
adulteration.
He
adds
that
he
does
not
know
all
the
methods
and
does
not
mention
all
that
he
knows.He
gives
6
kinds
of
adulteration
of
sugar,
9
of
olive
oil,
10
of
butter,
12
of
salt,
19
of
milk,
20
of
bread,
23
of
brandy,
24
of
meal,
28
of
chocolate,
30
of
wine,
32
of
coffee,
etc.
Even
God
Almighty
does
not
escape
this
fate.
See
Rouard
de
Card,
\"On
the
Falsifications
of
the
materials
of
the
Sacrament.\"
(\"De
la
falsification
des
substances
sacramentelles,\"
Paris,
1856.)
45\"Report,
&c.,
relative
to
the
grievances
complained
of
by
the
journeymen
bakers,
&c.,
London,
1862,\"
and
\"Second
Report,
&c.,
London,
1863.\"
46l.c.,
First
Report,
&c.,
p.
vi.
47l.c.,
p.
Ixxi.
48George
Read,
\"The
History
of
Baking,\"
London,
1848,
p.16.
49Report
(First)
&c.
Evidence
of
the
\"full-priced\"
baker
Cheeseman,
p.
108.
50George
Read,
l.c.
At
the
end
of
the
17th
and
the
beginning
of
the
18th
centuries
the
factors
(agents)
that
crowded
into
every
possible
trade
were
still
denounced
as
\"public
nuisances.\"
Thus
the
Grand
Jury
at
the
quarter
session
of
the
Justices
of
the
Peace
for
the
County
of
Somerset,
addressed
a
presentment
to
the
Lower
House
which,
among
other
things,
states,
\"that
these
factors
of
Blackwell
Hall
are
a
Public
Nuisance
and
Prejudice
to
the
Clothing
Trade,
and
ought
to
be
put
down
as
a
Nuisance.\"
\"The
Case
of
our
English
Wool.,
&c.,\"
London,1685,
pp.
6,
7.
51First
Report,
&c.
52Report
of
Committee
on
the
Baking
Trade
in
Ireland
for
1861.
53l.c.
54Public
meeting
of
agricultural
labourers
at
Lasswade,near
Edinburgh,
January
5th,
1866.
(See
Workman's
Advocate,January
13th,
1866.)
The
formation
since
the
close
of
1865
of
a
Trades'
Union
among
the
agricultural
labourers
at
first
in
Scotland
is
a
historic
event.
In
one
of
the
most
oppressed
agricultural
districts
of
England,
Buckinghamshire,
the
labourers,
in
March,
1867,
made
a
great
strike
for
the
raising
of
their
weekly
wage
from
9-10
shillings
to
12
shillings.
(It
will
be
seen
from
the
preceding
passage
that
the
movement
of
the
English
agricultural
proletariat,
entirely
crushed
since
the
suppression
of
its
violent
manifestations
after
1830,
and
especially
since
the
introduction
of
the
new
Poor
Laws,
begins
again
in
the
sixties,
until
it
becomes
finally
epoch-making
in
1872.
I
return
to
this
in
the
2nd
volume,
as
well
as
to
the
Blue
books
that
have
appeared
since
1867
on
the
position
of
the
English
land
labourers.
Addendum
to
the
3rd
ed.)
55Reynolds'
Newspaper,
January,
1866.
—
Every
week
this
same
paper
has,
under
the
sensational
headings,
\"Fearful
and
fatal
accidents,\"
\"Appalling
tragedies,\"
&c.,
a
whole
list
of
fresh
railway
catastrophes.
On
these
an
employee
on
the
North
Staffordshire
line
comments:
\"Everyone
knows
the
consequences
that
may
occur
if
the
driver
and
fireman
of
a
locomotive
engine
are
not
continually
on
the
look-out.
How
can
that
be
expected
from
a
man
who
has
been
at
such
work
for
29
or
30
hours,
exposed
to
the
weather,
and
without
rest.
The
following
is
an
example
which
is
of
very
frequent
occurrence:—
One
fireman
commenced
work
on
the
Monday
morning
at
a
very
early
hour.
When
he
had
finished
what
is
called
a
day's
work,
he
had
been
on
duty
14
hours
50
minutes.
Before
he
had
time
to
get
his
tea,
he
was
again
called
on
for
duty....
The
next
time
he
finished
he
had
been
on
duty
14
hours
25
minutes,making
a
total
of
29
hours
15
minutes
without
intermission.The
rest
of
the
week's
work
was
made
up
as
follows:
—Wednesday,
15
hours;
Thursday,
15
hours
35
minutes;
Friday,14
hours;
Saturday,
14
hours
10
minutes,
making
a
total
for
the
week
of
88
hours
30
minutes.
Now,
sir,
fancy
his
astonishment
on
being
paid
6
1\/4
days
for
the
whole.
Thinking
it
was
a
mistake,
he
applied
to
the
time-keeper,...
and
inquired
what
they
considered
a
day's
work,
and
was
told
13
hours
for
a
goods
man
(
i.e.,
78
hours)....
He
then
asked
for
what
he
had
made
over
and
above
the
78
hours
per
week,
but
was
refused.However,
he
was
at
last
told
they
would
give
him
another
quarter,
i.e.,
10d.,\"
l.c.,
4th
February.
1866.
56Cf
F.
Engels,
l.c.,
pp.
253,
254.
57Dr.
Letheby,
Consulting
Physician
of
the
Board
of
Health,
declared:
\"The
minimum
of
air
for
each
adult
ought
to
be
in
a
sleeping
room
300,
and
in
a
dwelling
room
500
cubic
feet.\"
Dr.
Richardson,
Senior
Physician
to
one
of
the
London
Hospitals:
\"With
needlewomen
of
all
kinds,
including
milliners,
dressmakers,
and
ordinary
seamstresses,
there
are
three
miseries
—
over-work,
deficient
air,
and
either
deficient
food
or
deficient
digestion....
Needlework,
in
the
main,
...is
infinitely
better
adapted
to
women
than
to
men.
But
the
mischiefs
of
the
trade,
in
the
metropolis
especially,
are
that
it
is
monopolised
by
some
twenty-six
capitalists,
who,
under
the
advantages
that
spring
from
capital,
can
bring
in
capital
to
force
economy
out
of
labour.
This
power
tells
throughout
the
whole
class.
If
a
dressmaker
can
get
a
little
circle
of
customers,such
is
the
competition
that,
in
her
home,
she
must
work
to
the
death
to
hold
together,
and
this
same
over-work
she
must
of
necessity
inflict
on
any
who
may
assist
her.
If
she
fail,
or
do
not
try
independently,
she
must
join
an
establishment,
where
her
labour
is
not
less,
but
where
her
money
is
safe.
Placed
thus,she
becomes
a
mere
slave,
tossed
about
with
the
variations
of
society.
Now
at
home,
in
one
room,
starving,
or
near
to
it,
then
engaged
15,
16,
aye,
even
18
hours
out
of
the
24,
in
an
air
that
is
scarcely
tolerable,
and
on
food
which,
even
if
it
be
good,cannot
be
digested
in
the
absence
of
pure
air.
On
these
victims,consumption,
which
is
purely
a
disease
of
bad
air,
feeds.\"Dr.
Richardson:
\"Work
and
Over-work,\"
in
\"Social
Science
Review,\"
18th
July,
1863.
58Morning
Star,
23rd
June,
1863.
—
The
Times
made
use
of
the
circumstance
to
defend
the
American
slave-owners
against
Bright,
&c.
\"Very
many
of
us
think,\"
says
a
leader
of
July
2nd,
1863,
\"that,
while
we
work
our
own
young
women
to
death,
using
the
scourge
of
starvation,
instead
of
the
crack
of
the
whip,
as
the
instrument
of
compulsion,
we
have
scarcely
a
right
to
hound
on
fire
and
slaughter
against
families
who
were
born
slave-owners,
and
who,
at
least,
feed
their
slaves
well,
and
work
them
lightly.\"
In
the
same
manner,the
Standard,
a
Tory
organ,
fell
foul
of
the
Rev.
Newman
Hall:
\"He
excommunicated
the
slave-owners,
but
prays
with
the
fine
folk
who,
without
remorse,
make
the
omnibus
drivers
and
conductors
of
London,
&c.,
work
16
hours
a-day
for
the
wages
of
a
dog.\"
Finally,
spake
the
oracle,
Thomas
Carlyle,
of
whom
I
wrote,
in
1850,
\"Zum
Teufel
ist
der
Genius,
der
Kultus
ist
geblieben.\"
[\"In
the
cult
of
genius
...
The
cult
remains,\"paraphrasing
Schiller]
In
a
short
parable,
he
reduces
the
one
great
event
of
contemporary
history,
the
American
Civil
War,to
this
level,
that
the
Peter
of
the
North
wants
to
break
the
head
of
the
Paul
of
the
South
with
all
his
might,
because
the
Peter
of
the
North
hires
his
labour
by
the
day,
and
the
Paul
of
the
South
hires
his
by
the
life.
(
Macmillan's
Magazine.
Ilias
Americana
in
nuce.
August,
1863.)
Thus,
the
bubble
of
Tory
sympathy
for
the
urban
workers
—
by
no
means
for
the
rural
—
has
burst
at
last.
The
sum
of
all
is
—
slavery!
59Dr.
Richardson,
l.c.
60Children's
Employment
Commission.
Third
Report.London,
1864,
pp.
iv.,
v.,
vi.
61\"Both
in
Staffordshire
and
in
South
Wales
young
girls
and
women
are
employed
on
the
pit
banks
and
on
the
coke
heaps,not
only
by
day
but
also
by
night.
This
practice
has
been
often
noticed
in
Reports
presented
to
Parliament,
as
being
attended
with
great
and
notorious
evils.
These
females
employed
with
the
men,
hardly
distinguished
from
them
in
their
dress,
and
begrimed
with
dirt
and
smoke,
are
exposed
to
the
deterioration
of
character,
arising
from
the
loss
of
self-respect,
which
can
hardly
fail
to
follow
from
their
unfeminine
occupation.\"
(l.c.,
194,
p.
xxvi.
Cf.
Fourth
Report
(1865),
61,
p.
xiii.)
It
is
the
same
in
glass-works.
62A
steel
manufacturer
who
employs
children
in
night
labour
remarked:
\"It
seems
but
natural
that
boys
who
work
at
night
cannot
sleep
and
get
proper
rest
by
day,
but
will
be
running
about.\"
(l.c.,
Fourth
Report,
63,
p.
xiii.)
On
the
importance
of
sunlight
for
the
maintenance
and
growth
of
the
body,
a
physician
writes:
\"Light
also
acts
upon
the
tissues
of
the
body
directly
in
hardening
them
and
supporting
their
elasticity.
The
muscles
of
animals,
when
they
are
deprived
of
a
proper
amount
of
light,
become
soft
and
inelastic,
the
nervous
power
loses
its
tone
from
defective
stimulation,
and
the
elaboration
of
all
growth
seems
to
be
perverted....
In
the
case
of
children,
constant
access
to
plenty
of
light
during
the
day,and
to
the
direct
rays
of
the
sun
for
a
part
of
it,
is
most
essential
to
health.
Light
assists
in
the
elaboration
of
good
plastic
blood,and
hardens
the
fibre
after
it
has
been
laid
down.
It
also
acts
as
a
stimulus
upon
the
organs
of
sight,
and
by
this
means
brings
about
more
activity
in
the
various
cerebral
functions.\"
Dr.
W.Strange,
Senior
Physician
of
the
Worcester
General
Hospital,from
whose
work
on
\"Health\"
(1864)
this
passage
is
taken,writes
in
a
letter
to
Mr.
White,
one
of
the
commissioners:\"I
have
had
opportunities
formerly,
when
in
Lancashire,
of
observing
the
effects
of
nightwork
upon
children,
and
I
have
no
hesitation
in
saying,
contrary
to
what
some
employers
were
fond
of
asserting,
those
children
who
were
subjected
to
it
soon
suffered
in
their
health.\"
(l.c.,
284.,
p.
55.)
That
such
a
question
should
furnish
the
material
of
serious
controversy,
shows
plainly
how
capitalist
production
acts
on
the
brain-functions
of
capitalists
and
their
retainers.
63l.c.,
57,
p.
xii.
64l.c..
Fourth
Report
(1865).
58.
p.
xii.
65l.c.
66l.c.,
p.
xiii.
The
degree
of
culture
of
these
\"labour
powers\"
must
naturally
be
such
as
appears
in
the
following
dialogues
with
one
of
the
commissioners:
Jeremiah
Haynes,age
12
—
\"Four
times
four
is
8;
4
fours
are
16.
A
king
is
him
that
has
all
the
money
and
gold.
We
have
a
king
(told
it
is
a
Queen),
they
call
her
the
Princess
Alexandra.
Told
that
she
married
the
Queen's
son.
The
Queen's
son
is
the
Princess
Alexandra.
A
Princess
is
a
man.\"
William
Turner,
age
12
—\"Don't
live
in
England.
Think
it
is
a
country,
but
didn't
know
before.\"
John
Morris,
age
14
—
\"Have
heard
say
that
God
made
the
world,
and
that
all
the
people
was
drownded
but
one,heard
say
that
one
was
a
little
bird.\"
William
Smith
age
15
—\"God
made
man,
man
made
woman.\"
Edward
Taylor,
age
15—
\"Do
not
know
of
London.\"
Henry
Matthewman,
age
17
—\"Had
been
to
chapel,
but
missed
a
good
many
times
lately.
One
name
that
they
preached
about
was
Jesus
Christ,
but
I
cannot
say
any
others,
and
I
cannot
tell
anything
about
him.
He
was
not
killed,
but
died
like
other
people.
He
was
not
the
same
as
other
people
in
some
ways,
because
he
was
religious
in
some
ways
and
others
isn't.\"
(l.c.,
p.
xv.)
\"The
devil
is
a
good
person.I
don't
know
where
he
lives.\"
\"Christ
was
a
wicked
man.\"\"This
girl
spelt
God
as
dog,
and
did
not
know
the
name
of
the
queen.\"
(\"Ch.
Employment
Comm.
V.
Report,
1866\"
p.
55,
n.278.)
The
same
system
obtains
in
the
glass
and
paper
works
as
in
the
metallurgical,
already
cited.
In
the
paper
factories,where
the
paper
is
made
by
machinery,
night-work
is
the
rule
for
all
processes,
except
rag-sorting.
In
some
cases
night-work,by
relays,
is
carried
on
incessantly
through
the
whole
week,usually
from
Sunday
night
until
midnight
of
the
following
Saturday.
Those
who
are
on
day-work
work
5
days
of
12,
and
1
day
of
18
hours;
those
on
night-work
5
nights
of
12,
and
1
of
6
hours
in
each
week.
In
other
cases
each
set
works
24
hours
consecutively
on
alternate
days,
one
set
working
6
hours
on
Monday,
and
18
on
Saturday
to
make
up
the
24
hours.In
other
cases
an
intermediate
system
prevails,
by
which
all
employed
on
the
paper-making
machinery
work
15
or
16
hours
every
day
in
the
week.
This
system,
says
Commissioner
Lord,\"seems
to
combine
all
the
evils
of
both
the
12
hours'
and
the
24
hours'
relays.\"
Children
under
13,
young
persons
under
18,
and
women,
work
under
this
night
system.
Sometimes
under
the
12
hours'
system
they
are
obliged,
on
account
of
the
non-appearance
of
those
that
ought
to
relieve
them,
to
work
a
double
turn
of
24
hours.
The
evidence
proves
that
boys
and
girls
very
often
work
overtime,
which,
not
unfrequently,extends
to
24
or
even
36
hours
of
uninterrupted
toil.
In
the
continuous
and
unvarying
process
of
glazing
are
found
girls
of
12
who
work
the
whole
month
14
hours
a
day,
\"without
any
regular
relief
or
cessation
beyond
2
or,
at
most,
3
breaks
of
half
an
hour
each
for
meals.\"
In
some
mills,
where
regular
night-work
has
been
entirely
given
up,
over-work
goes
on
to
a
terrible
extent,
\"and
that
often
in
the
dirtiest,
and
in
the
hottest,and
in
the
most
monotonous
of
the
various
processes.\"
(\"Ch.Employment
Comm.
Report
IV.,
1865,\"
p.
xxxviii,
and
xxxix.)
67Fourth
Report,
&c..
1865,
79,
p.
xvi.
68l.c.,
80.
p.
xvi.
69l.c.,
82.
p.
xvii.
70In
our
reflecting
and
reasoning
age
a
man
is
not
worth
much
who
cannot
give
a
good
reason
for
everything,
no
matter
how
bad
or
how
crazy.
Everything
in
the
world
that
has
been
done
wrong
has
been
done
wrong
for
the
very
best
of
reasons.(Hegel,
l.c.,
p.
249
)
71l.c.,
85,
p.
xvii.
To
similar
tender
scruples
of
the
glass
manufacturers
that
regular
meal-times
for
the
children
are
impossible
because
as
a
consequence
a
certain
quantity
of
heat,radiated
by
the
furnaces,
would
be
\"a
pure
loss\"
or
\"wasted,\"Commissioner
White
makes
answer.
His
answer
is
unlike
that
of
Ure,
Senior,
&c.,
and
their
puny
German
plagiarists
à
la
Roscher
who
are
touched
by
the
\"abstinence,\"
\"self-denial,\"\"saving,\"
of
the
capitalists
in
the
expenditure
of
their
gold,and
by
their
Timur-Tamerlanish
prodigality
of
human
life!
\"A
certain
amount
of
heat
beyond
what
is
usual
at
present
might
also
be
going
to
waste,
if
meal-times
were
secured
in
these
cases,
but
it
seems
likely
not
equal
in
money-value
to
the
waste
of
animal
power
now
going
on
in
glass-houses
throughout
the
kingdom
from
growing
boys
not
having
enough
quiet
time
to
eat
their
meals
at
ease,
with
a
little
rest
afterwards
for
digestion.\"
(l.c.,
p.
xiv.)
And
this
in
the
year
of
progress
1865!Without
considering
the
expenditure
of
strength
in
lifting
and
carrying,
such
a
child,
in
the
sheds
where
bottle
and
flint
glass
are
made,
walks
during
the
performance
of
his
work
15-20
miles
in
every
6
hours!
And
the
work
often
lasts
14
or
15
hours!
In
many
of
these
glass
works,
as
in
the
Moscow
spinning
mills,
the
system
of
6
hours'
relays
is
in
force.\"During
the
working
part
of
the
week
six
hours
is
the
utmost
unbroken
period
ever
attained
at
any
one
time
for
rest,
and
out
of
this
has
to
come
the
time
spent
in
coming
and
going
to
and
from
work,
washing,
dressing,
and
meals,
leaving
a
very
short
period
indeed
for
rest,
and
none
for
fresh
air
and
play,
unless
at
the
expense
of
the
sleep
necessary
for
young
boys,
especially
at
such
hot
and
fatiguing
work....
Even
the
short
sleep
is
obviously
liable
to
be
broken
by
a
boy
having
to
wake
himself
if
it
is
night,
or
by
the
noise,
if
it
is
day.\"
Mr.
White
gives
cases
where
a
boy
worked
36
consecutive
hours;
others
where
boys
of
12
drudged
on
until
2
in
the
morning,
and
then
slept
in
the
works
till
5
a.m.
(3
hours!)
only
to
resume
their
work.
\"The
amount
of
work,\"
say
Tremenheere
and
Tufnell,
who
drafted
the
general
report,
\"done
by
boys,
youths,
girls,
and
women,
in
the
course
of
their
daily
or
nightly
spell
of
labour,
is
certainly
extraordinary.\"
(l.c.,
xliii.
and
xliv.)
Meanwhile,
late
by
night,self-denying
Mr.
Glass-Capital,
primed
with
port-wine,
reels
out
of
his
club
homeward
droning
out
idiotically.
\"Britons
never,
never
shall
be
slaves!\"
72In
England
even
now
occasionally
in
rural
districts
a
labourer
is
condemned
to
imprisonment
for
desecrating
the
Sabbath,
by
working
in
his
front
garden.
The
same
labourer
is
punished
for
breach
of
contract
if
he
remains
away
from
his
metal,
paper,
or
glass
works
on
the
Sunday,
even
if
it
be
from
a
religious
whim.
The
orthodox
Parliament
will
hear
nothing
of
Sabbath-breaking
if
it
occurs
in
the
process
of
expanding
capital.
A
memorial
(August
1863),
in
which
the
London
day
labourers
in
fish
and
poultry
shops
asked
for
the
abolition
of
Sunday
labour,
states
that
their
work
lasts
for
the
first
6
days
of
the
week
on
an
average
15
hours
a-day,
and
on
Sunday
8-10
hours.
From
this
same
memorial
we
learn
also
that
the
delicate
gourmands
among
the
aristocratic
hypocrites
of
Exeter
Hall,
especially
encourage
this
\"Sunday
labour.\"
These
\"holy
ones,\"
so
zealous
in
cute
curanda
[in
attending
to
their
bodily
pleasures],
show
their
Christianity
by
the
humility
with
which
they
bear
the
overwork,
the
privations,
and
the
hunger
of
others.
Obsequium
ventris
istis
(the
labourers)
perniciosius
est[Gluttony
is
more
ruinous
to
their
stomachs
–
paraphrase
of
Horace].
73\"We
have
given
in
our
previous
reports
the
statements
of
several
experienced
manufacturers
to
the
effect
that
over-hours...
certainly
tend
prematurely
to
exhaust
the
working
power
of
the
men.\"
(l.c.,
64.
p.
xiii.)
74Cairnes,
\"The
Slave
Power,\"
pp.
110.
111.
75John
Ward:
\"The
Borough
of
Stoke-upon-Trent,\"
London,1843,
p.
42.
76Ferrand's
Speech
in
the
House
of
Commons,
27th
April,1863.
77\"Those
were
the
very
words
used
by
the
cotton
manufacturers.\"
l.c.
78l.c.
Mr.
Villiers,
despite
the
best
of
intentions
on
his
part,
was
\"legally\"
obliged
to
refuse
the
requests
of
the
manufacturers.
These
gentlemen,
however,
attained
their
end
through
the
obliging
nature
of
the
local
poor
law
boards.
Mr.A.
Redgrave,
Inspector
of
Factories,
asserts
that
this
time
the
system
under
which
orphans
and
pauper
children
were
treated
\"legally\"
as
apprentices
\"was
not
accompanied
with
the
old
abuses\"
(on
these
\"abuses\"
see
Engels,
l.c.),
although
in
one
case
there
certainly
was
\"abuse
of
this
system
in
respect
to
a
number
of
girls
and
young
women
brought
from
the
agricultural
districts
of
Scotland
into
Lancashire
and
Cheshire.\"Under
this
system
the
manufacturer
entered
into
a
contract
with
the
workhouse
authorities
for
a
certain
period.
He
fed,
clothed
and
lodged
the
children,
and
gave
them
a
small
allowance
of
money.
A
remark
of
Mr.
Redgrave
to
be
quoted
directly
seems
strange,
especially
if
we
consider
that
even
among
the
years
of
prosperity
of
the
English
cotton
trade,
the
year
1860
stands
unparalleled,
and
that,
besides,
wages
were
exceptionally
high.For
this
extraordinary
demand
for
work
had
to
contend
with
the
depopulation
of
Ireland,
with
unexampled
emigration
from
the
English
and
Scotch
agricultural
districts
to
Australia
and
America,
with
an
actual
diminution
of
the
population
in
some
of
the
English
agricultural
districts,
in
consequence
partly
of
an
actual
breakdown
of
the
vital
force
of
the
labourers,partly
of
the
already
effected
dispersion
of
the
disposable
population
through
the
dealers
in
human
flesh.
Despite
all
this
Mr.
Redgrave
says:
\"This
kind
of
labour,
however,
would
only
be
sought
after
when
none
other
could
be
procured,
for
it
is
a
high-priced
labour.
The
ordinary
wages
of
a
boy
of
13
would
be
about
4s.
per
week,
but
to
lodge,
to
clothe,
to
feed,
and
to
provide
medical
attendance
and
proper
superintendence
for
50
or
100
of
these
boys,
and
to
set
aside
some
remuneration
for
them,
could
not
be
accomplished
for
4s.
a-head
per
week.\"(Report
of
the
Inspector
of
Factories
for
30th
April,
1860,
p.27.)
Mr.
Redgrave
forgets
to
tell
us
how
the
labourer
himself
can
do
all
this
for
his
children
out
of
their
4s.
a-week
wages,when
the
manufacturer
cannot
do
it
for
the
50
or
100
children
lodged,
boarded,
superintended
all
together.
To
guard
against
false
conclusions
from
the
text,
I
ought
here
to
remark
that
the
English
cotton
industry,
since
it
was
placed
under
the
Factory
Act
of
1850
with
its
regulations
of
labour-time,
&c.,
must
be
regarded
as
the
model
industry
of
England.
The
English
cotton
operative
is
in
every
respect
better
off
than
his
Continental
companion
in
misery.
\"The
Prussian
factory
operative
labours
at
least
ten
hours
per
week
more
than
his
English
competitor,and
if
employed
at
his
own
loom
in
his
own
house,
his
labour
is
not
restricted
to
even
those
additional
hours.
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.of
Fact.,\"
31st
October,
1855,
p.
103.)
Redgrave,
the
Factory
Inspector
mentioned
above,
after
the
Industrial
Exhibition
in
1851,
travelled
on
the
Continent,
especially
in
France
and
Germany,
for
the
purpose
of
inquiring
into
the
conditions
of
the
factories.
Of
the
Prussian
operative
he
says:
\"He
receives
a
remuneration
sufficient
to
procure
the
simple
fare,
and
to
supply
the
slender
comforts
to
which
he
has
been
accustomed...
he
lives
upon
his
coarse
fare,
and
works
hard,
wherein
his
position
is
subordinate
to
that
of
the
English
operative.\"
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.\"
31st
Oct.,
1855,
p.
85.)
79The
over-worked
\"die
off
with
strange
rapidity;
but
the
places
of
those
who
perish
are
instantly
filled,
and
a
frequent
change
of
persons
makes
no
alteration
in
the
scene.\"(\"England
and
America.\"
London,
1833,
vol.
I,
p.
55.
By
E.
G.Wakefield.)
80See
\"Public
Health.
Sixth
Report
of
the
Medical
Officer
of
the
Privy
Council,
1863.\"
Published
in
London
1864.This
report
deals
especially
with
the
agricultural
labourers.\"Sutherland
...
is
commonly
represented
as
a
highly
improved
county
...
but
...
recent
inquiry
has
discovered
that
even
there,in
districts
once
famous
for
fine
men
and
gallant
soldiers,the
inhabitants
have
degenerated
into
a
meagre
and
stunted
race.
In
the
healthiest
situations,
on
hill
sides
fronting
the
sea,
the
faces
of
their
famished
children
are
as
pale
as
they
could
be
in
the
foul
atmosphere
of
a
London
alley.\"
(W.
Th.Thornton.
\"Overpopulation
and
its
Remedy.\"
l.c.,
pp.
74,
75.)
They
resemble
in
fact
the
30,000
\"gallant
Highlanders\"
whom
Glasgow
pigs
together
in
its
wynds
and
closes,
with
prostitutes
and
thieves.
81\"But
though
the
health
of
a
population
is
so
important
a
fact
of
the
national
capital,
we
are
afraid
it
must
be
said
that
the
class
of
employers
of
labour
have
not
been
the
most
forward
to
guard
and
cherish
this
treasure....
The
consideration
of
the
health
of
the
operatives
was
forced
upon
the
mill
owners.\"
(
Times,
November
5th,
1861.)
\"The
men
of
the
West
Riding
became
the
clothiers
of
mankind
...
the
health
of
the
workpeople
was
sacrificed,
and
the
race
in
a
few
generations
must
have
degenerated.
But
a
reaction
set
in.
Lord
Shaftesbury's
Bill
limited
the
hours
of
children's
labour,\"
&c.(\"Report
of
the
Registrar-General,\"
for
October
1861.)
82We,
therefore,
find,
e.g.,
that
in
the
beginning
of
1863,26
firms
owning
extensive
potteries
in
Staffordshire,
amongst
others,
Josiah
Wedgwood,
&
Sons,
petition
in
a
memorial
for
\"some
legislative
enactment.\"
Competition
with
other
capitalists
permits
them
no
voluntary
limitation
of
working
time
for
children,
&c.
\"Much
as
we
deplore
the
evils
before
mentioned,
it
would
not
be
possible
to
prevent
them
by
any
scheme
of
agreement
between
the
manufacturers.
...
Taking
all
these
points
into
consideration,
we
have
come
to
the
conviction
that
some
legislative
enactment
is
wanted.\"
(\"Children's
Employment
Comm.\"
Rep.
I,
1863,
p.
322.)
Most
recently
a
much
more
striking
example
offers.
The
rise
in
the
price
of
cotton
during
a
period
of
feverish
activity,
had
induced
the
manufacturers
in
Blackburn
to
shorten,
by
mutual
consent,the
working-time
in
their
mills
during
a
certain
fixed
period.This
period
terminated
about
the
end
of
November,
1871.Meanwhile,
the
wealthier
manufacturers,
who
combined
spinning
with
weaving,
used
the
diminution
of
production
resulting
from
this
agreement,
to
extend
their
own
business
and
thus
to
make
great
profits
at
the
expense
of
the
small
employers.
The
latter
thereupon
turned
in
their
extremity
to
the
operatives,
urged
them
earnestly
to
agitate
for
the
9
hours'system,
and
promised
contributions
in
money
to
this
end.
83The
labour
Statutes,
the
like
of
which
were
enacted
at
the
same
time
in
France,
the
Netherlands,
and
elsewhere,
were
first
formally
repealed
in
England
in
1813,
long
after
the
changes
in
methods
of
production
had
rendered
them
obsolete.
84\"No
child
under
12
years
of
age
shall
be
employed
in
any
manufacturing
establishment
more
than
10
hours
in
one
day.\"
General
Statutes
of
Massachusetts,
63,
ch.
12.(The
various
Statutes
were
passed
between
1836
and
1858.)\"Labour
performed
during
a
period
of
10
hours
on
any
day
in
all
cotton,
woollen,
silk,
paper,
glass,
and
flax
factories,or
in
manufactories
of
iron
and
brass,
shall
be
considered
a
legal
day's
labour.
And
be
it
enacted,
that
hereafter
no
minor
engaged
in
any
factory
shall
be
holden
or
required
to
work
more
than
10
hours
in
any
day,or
60
hours
in
any
week;
and
that
hereafter
no
minor
shall
be
admitted
as
a
worker
under
the
age
of
10
years
in
any
factory
within
this
State.\"
State
of
New
Jersey.
An
Act
to
limit
the
hours
of
labour,
&c.,
§
1
and
2.
(Law
of
18th
March,
1851.)
\"No
minor
who
has
attained
the
age
of
12
years,
and
is
under
the
age
of
15
years,
shall
be
employed
in
any
manufacturing
establishment
more
than
11
hours
in
any
one
day,
nor
before
5
o'clock
in
the
morning,
nor
after
7.30
in
the
evening.\"
(\"Revised
Statutes
of
the
State
of
Rhode
Island,\"&c.,
ch.
139,
§
23,
1st
July,
1857.)
85\"Sophisms
of
Free
Trade.\"
7th
Ed.
London,
1850,
p.205,
9th
Ed.,
p.
253.
This
same
Tory,
moreover,
admits
that\"Acts
of
Parliament
regulating
wages,
but
against
the
labourer
and
in
favour
of
the
master,
lasted
for
the
long
period
of
464
years.
Population
grew.
These
laws
were
then
found,
and
really
became,
unnecessary
and
burdensome.\"
(l.c.,
p.
206.)
86In
reference
to
this
statute,
J.
Wade
with
truth
remarks:\"From
the
statement
above
(i.e.,
with
regard
to
the
statute)
it
appears
that
in
1496
the
diet
was
considered
equivalent
to
one
third
of
the
income
of
an
artificer
and
one-half
the
income
of
a
labourer,
which
indicates
a
greater
degree
of
independence
among
the
working-classes
than
prevails
at
present;
for
the
board,
both
of
labourers
and
artificers,
would
now
be
reckoned
at
a
much
higher
proportion
of
their
wages.\"
(J.
Wade,
\"History
of
the
Middle
and
Working
Classes,\"
pp.
24,
25,
and
577.)
The
opinion
that
this
difference
is
due
to
the
difference
in
the
price
relations
between
food
and
clothing
then
and
now
is
refuted
by
the
most
cursory
glance
at
\"Chronicon
Preciosum,
&c.\"
By
Bishop
Fleetwood.
1st
Ed.,
London,
1707;
2nd
Ed.,
London,1745.
87W.
Petty.
\"Political
Anatomy
of
Ireland,
Verbum
Sapienti,\"
1672,
Ed.
1691,
p.
10.
88\"A
Discourse
on
the
necessity
of
encouraging
Mechanick
Industry,\"
London,
1690,
p.
13.
Macaulay,
who
has
falsified
English
history
in
the
interests
of
the
Whigs
and
the
bourgeoisie,
declares
as
follows:
\"The
practice
of
setting
children
prematurely
to
work
...
prevailed
in
the
17th
century
to
an
extent
which,
when
compared
with
the
extent
of
the
manufacturing
system,
seems
almost
incredible.
At
Norwich,the
chief
seat
of
the
clothing
trade,
a
little
creature
of
six
years
old
was
thought
fit
for
labour.
Several
writers
of
that
time,and
among
them
some
who
were
considered
as
eminently
benevolent,
mention
with
exultation
the
fact
that
in
that
single
city,
boys
and
girls
of
very
tender
age
create
wealth
exceeding
what
was
necessary
for
their
own
subsistence
by
twelve
thousand
pounds
a
year.
The
more
carefully
we
examine
the
history
of
the
past,
the
more
reason
shall
we
find
to
dissent
from
those
who
imagine
that
our
age
has
been
fruitful
of
new
social
evils....
That
which
is
new
is
the
intelligence
and
the
humanity
which
remedies
them.\"
(\"History
of
England,\"vol.
1.,
p.
417.)
Macaulay
might
have
reported
further
that\"extremely
well-disposed\"
amis
du
commerce
in
the
17th
century,
narrate
with
\"exultation\"
how
in
a
poorhouse
in
Holland
a
child
of
four
was
employed,
and
that
this
example
of\"
vertu
mise
en
pratique\"
[applied
virtue]
passes
muster
in
all
the
humanitarian
works,
à
la
Macaulay,
to
the
time
of
Adam
Smith.
It
is
true
that
with
the
substitution
of
manufacture
for
handicrafts,
traces
of
the
exploitation
of
children
begin
to
appear.
This
exploitation
existed
always
to
a
certain
extent
among
peasants,
and
was
the
more
developed,
the
heavier
the
yoke
pressing
on
the
husbandman.
The
tendency
of
capital
is
there
unmistakably;
but
the
facts
themselves
are
still
as
isolated
as
the
phenomena
of
two-headed
children.
Hence
they
were
noted
\"with
exultation\"
as
especially
worthy
of
remark
and
as
wonders
by
the
far-seeing
\"
amis
du
commerce,\"
and
recommended
as
models
for
their
own
time
and
for
posterity.This
same
Scotch
sycophant
and
fine
talker,
Macaulay,
says:\"We
hear
to-day
only
of
retrogression
and
see
only
progress.\"What
eyes,
and
especially
what
ears!
89Among
the
accusers
of
the
workpeople,
the
most
angry
is
the
anonymous
author
quoted
in
the
text
of
\"An
Essay
on
Trade
and
Commerce,
containing
Observations
on
Taxes,
&c.,\"London,
1770.
He
had
already
dealt
with
this
subject
in
his
earlier
work:
\"Considerations
on
Taxes.\"
London,
1765.
On
the
same
side
follows
Polonius
Arthur
Young,
the
unutterable
statistical
prattler.
Among
the
defenders
of
the
working-classes
the
foremost
are:
Jacob
Vanderlint,
in:
\"Money
Answers
all
Things.\"
London,
1734,
the
Rev.
Nathaniel
Forster,
D.
D.,in
\"An
Enquiry
into
the
Causes
of
the
Present
High
Price
of
Provisions,\"
London,
1767;
Dr.
Price,
and
especially
Postlethwayt,
as
well
in
the
supplement
to
his
\"Universal
Dictionary
of
Trade
and
Commerce,\"
as
in
his
\"Great
Britain's
Commercial
Interest
explained
and
improved.\"
2nd
Edition,1755.
The
facts
themselves
are
confirmed
by
many
other
writers
of
the
time,
among
others
by
Josiah
Tucker.
90Postlethwayt,
l.c.,
\"First
Preliminary
Discourse,\"
p.
14.
91\"An
Essay,\"
&c.
He
himself
relates
on
p.
96
wherein
the\"happiness\"
of
the
English
agricultural
labourer
already
in
1770
consisted.
\"Their
powers
are
always
upon
the
stretch,they
cannot
live
cheaper
than
they
do,
nor
work
harder.\"
92Protestantism,
by
changing
almost
all
the
traditional
holidays
into
workdays,
plays
an
important
part
in
the
genesis
of
capital.
93\"An
Essay,\"
4c.,
pp.
15,
41,
96,
97,
55,
57,
69.
—
Jacob
Vanderlint,
as
early
as
1734,
declared
that
the
secret
of
the
out
cry
of
the
capitalists
as
to
the
laziness
of
the
working
people
was
simply
that
they
claimed
for
the
same
wages
6
days'
labour
instead
of
4.
94l.c.,
p.
242.
95l.c.
\"The
French,\"
he
says,
\"laugh
at
our
enthusiastic
ideas
of
liberty.\"
l.c.,
p.
78.
96\"They
especially
objected
to
work
beyond
the
12
hours
per
day,
because
the
law
which
fixed
those
hours,
is
the
only
good
which
remains
to
them
of
the
legislation
of
the
Republic.\"(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.\",
31
st
October,
1856,
p.
80.)
The
French
Twelve
Hours'
Bill
of
September
5th,
1850,
a
bourgeois
edition
of
the
decree
of
the
Provisional
Government
of
March
2nd,
1848,
holds
in
all
workshops
without
exceptions.
Before
this
law
the
working
day
in
France
was
without
definite
limit.It
lasted
in
the
factories
14,
15,
or
more
hours.
See
\"Des
classes
ouvrières
en
France,
pendant
l'année
1848.
Par
M.
Blanqui.\"M.
Blanqui
the
economist,
not
the
Revolutionist,
had
been
entrusted
by
the
Government
with
an
inquiry
into
the
condition
of
the
working-class.
97Belgium
is
the
model
bourgeois
state
in
regard
to
the
regulation
of
the
working
day.
Lord
Howard
of
Welden,English
Plenipotentiary
at
Brussels,
reports
to
the
Foreign
Office
May
12th,
1862:
\"M.
Rogier,
the
minister,
informed
me
that
children's
labour
is
limited
neither
by
a
general
law
nor
by
any
local
regulations;
that
the
Government,
during
the
last
three
years,
intended
in
every
session
to
propose
a
bill
on
the
subject,
but
always
found
an
insuperable
obstacle
in
the
jealous
opposition
to
any
legislation
in
contradiction
with
the
principle
of
perfect
freedom
of
labour.\"
98\"It
is
certainly
much
to
be
regretted
that
any
class
of
persons
should
toil
12
hours
a
day,
which,
including
the
time
for
their
meals
and
for
going
to
and
returning
from
their
work,amounts,
in
fact,
to
14
of
the
24
hours....
Without
entering
into
the
question
of
health,
no
one
will
hesitate,
I
think,
to
admit
that,
in
a
moral
point
of
view,
so
entire
an
absorption
of
the
time
of
the
working-classes,
without
intermission,
from
the
early
age
of
13,
and
in
trades
not
subject
to
restriction,
much
younger,
must
be
extremely
prejudicial,
and
is
an
evil
greatly
to
be
deplored....
For
the
sake,
therefore,
of
public
morals,
of
bringing
up
an
orderly
population,
and
of
giving
the
great
body
of
the
people
a
reasonable
enjoyment
of
life,
it
is
much
to
be
desired
that
in
all
trades
some
portion
of
every
working
day
should
be
reserved
for
rest
and
leisure.\"
(Leonard
Horner
in\"Reports
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Dec.,
1841.\")
99See
\"Judgment
of
Mr.
J.
H.
Otway,
Belfast.
Hilary
Sessions,
County
Antrim,
1860.\"
100It
is
very
characteristic
of
the
regime
of
Louis
Philippe,the
bourgeois
king,
that
the
one
Factory
Act
passed
during
his
reign,
that
of
March
22nd,
1841,
was
never
put
in
force.And
this
law
only
dealt
with
child-labour.
It
fixed
8
hours
a
day
for
children
between
8
and
12,
12
hours
for
children
between
12
and
16,
&c.,
with
many
exceptions
which
allow
night-work
even
for
children
8
years
old.
The
supervision
and
enforcement
of
this
law
are,
in
a
country
where
every
mouse
is
under
police
administration,
left
to
the
good-will
of
the
amis
ducommerce.
Only
since
1853,
in
one
single
department
—
the
Departement
du
Nord
—
has
a
paid
government
inspector
been
appointed.
Not
less
characteristic
of
the
development
of
French
society,
generally,
is
the
fact,
that
Louis
Philippe's
law
stood
solitary
among
the
all-embracing
mass
of
French
laws,
till
the
Revolution
of
1848.
101\"Report
of
Insp.
of
Fact.\"
30th
April,
1860,
p.
50.
102\"Rept.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,\"
31st
October,
1849,
p.
6
103\"Rept.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,\"
31st
October,
1848,
p.
98.
104Leonard
Horner
uses
the
expression
\"nefarious
practices\"
in
his
official
reports.
(\"Report
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,\"31st
October,
1859,
p.
7.)
105\"Rept.,\"
&c.,
30th
Sept.,
1844,
p.
15.
106The
Act
allows
children
to
be
employed
for
10
hours
if
they
do
not
work
day
after
day,
but
only
on
alternate
days.
In
the
main,
this
clause
remained
inoperative.
107\"As
a
reduction
in
their
hours
of
work
would
cause
a
larger
number
(of
children)
to
be
employed,
it
was
thought
that
the
additional
supply
of
children
from
8
to
9
years
of
age
would
meet
the
increased
demand\"
(l.c.,
p.
13
).
108Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,\"
31st
Oct.,
1848,
p.
16.
109\"I
found
that
men
who
had
been
getting
10s.
a
week,
had
had
1s.
taken
off
for
a
reduction
in
the
rate
of
10
per
cent,
and
1s.
6d.
off
the
remaining
9s.
for
the
reduction
in
time,
together
2s.
6d..
and
notwithstanding
this,
many
of
them
said
they
would
rather
work
10
hours.\"
l.c.
110\"'Though
I
signed
it
[the
petition],
I
said
at
the
time
I
was
putting
my
hand
to
a
wrong
thing.'
'Then
why
did
you
put
your
hand
to
it'
'Because
I
should
have
been
turned
off
if
I
had
refused.'
Whence
it
would
appear
that
this
petitioner
felt
himself
'oppressed,'
but
not
exactly
by
the
Factory
Act.\"
l.c.,
p.102.
精選分類
