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16H.
Merivale.
\"Lectures
on
Colonisation
and
Colonies,\"1841,
Vol.
I
,
p.
146.
17Malthus,
\"Principles
of
Political
Economy,\"
pp.
215,
319,320.
In
this
work,
Malthus
finally
discovers,
with
the
help
of
Sismondi,
the
beautiful
Trinity
of
capitalistic
production:
over
production,
over-population,
over-consumption
—
three
very
delicate
monsters,
indeed.
Cf.
F.
Engels,
\"Umrisse
zu
einer
Kritik
der
Nationalkonomie,\"
l.
c.,
p,
107,
et
seq.
18Harriet
Martineau,
\"A
Manchester
Strike,\"
1832,
p.
101.
19Even
in
the
cotton
famine
of
1863
we
find,
in
a
pamphlet
of
the
operative
cotton-spinners
of
Blackburn,
fierce
denunciations
of
overwork,
which,
in
consequence
of
the
Factory
Acts,
of
course
only
affected
adult
male
labourers.\"The
adult
operatives
at
this
mill
have
been
asked
to
work
from
12
to
13
hours
per
day,
while
there
are
hundreds
who
are
compelled
to
be
idle
who
would
willingly
work
partial
time,in
order
to
maintain
their
families
and
save
their
brethren
from
a
premature
grave
through
being
overworked....
We,\"
it
goes
on
to
say,
\"would
ask
if
the
practice
of
working
overtime
by
a
number
of
hands,
is
likely
to
create
a
good
feeling
between
masters
and
servants.
Those
who
are
worked
overtime
feel
the
injustice
equally
with
those
who
are
condemned
to
forced
idleness.
There
is
in
the
district
almost
sufficient
work
to
give
to
all
partial
employment
if
fairly
distributed.
We
are
only
asking
what
is
right
in
requesting
the
masters
generally
to
pursue
a
system
of
short
hours,
particularly
until
a
better
state
of
things
begins
to
dawn
upon
us,
rather
than
to
work
a
portion
of
the
hands
overtime,
while
others,
for
want
of
work,
are
compelled
to
exist
upon
charity.\"
(\"Reports
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,Oct.
31,
1863,\"
p.
8.)
The
author
of
the
\"Essay
on
Trade
and
Commerce\"
grasps
the
effect
of
a
relative
surplus
population
on
the
employed
labourers
with
his
usual
unerring
bourgeois
instinct.
\"Another
cause
of
idleness
in
this
kingdom
is
the
want
of
a
sufficient
number
of
labouring
hands
....
Whenever
from
an
extraordinary
demand
for
manufactures,
labour
grows
scarce,the
labourers
feel
their
own
consequence,
and
will
make
their
masters
feel
it
likewise
—
it
is
amazing;
but
so
depraved
are
the
dispositions
of
these
people,
that
in
such
cases
a
set
of
workmen
have
combined
to
distress
the
employer
by
idling
a
whole
day
together.\"
(\"Essay,
&c.,\"
pp.
27,
28.)
The
fellows
in
fact
were
hankering
after
a
rise
in
wages.
20Economist,
Jan.
21.
1860.
21Whilst
during
the
last
six
months
of
1866,
80-90,000
working
people
in
London
were
thrown
out
of
work,
the
Factory
Report
for
that
same
half
year
says:
\"It
does
not
appear
absolutely
true
to
say
that
demand
will
always
produce
supply
just
at
the
moment
when
it
is
needed.
It
has
not
done
so
with
labour,
for
much
machinery
has
been
idle
last
year
for
want
of
hands.\"
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,
31st
Oct.,
1866,\"
p.
81.)
22Opening
address
to
the
Sanitary
Conference,
Birmingham,January
15th,
1875,
by
J.
Chamberlain,
Mayor
of
the
town,now
(1883)
President
of
the
Board
of
Trade.
23781
towns
given
in
the
census
for
1861
for
England
and
Wales
\"contained
10,960,998
inhabitants,
while
the
villages
and
country
parishes
contained
9,105,226.
In
1851,
580
towns
were
distinguished,
and
the
population
in
them
and
in
the
surrounding
country
was
nearly
equal.
But
while
in
the
subsequent
ten
years
the
population
in
the
villages
and
the
country
increased
half
a
million,
the
population
in
the
580
towns
increased
by
a
million
and
a
half
(1,554,067).
The
increase
of
the
population
of
the
country
parishes
is
6.5
per
cent.,
and
of
the
towns
17.3
per
cent.
The
difference
in
the
rates
of
increase
is
due
to
the
migration
from
country
to
town.Three-fourths
of
the
total
increase
of
population
has
taken
place
in
the
towns.\"
(\"Census.
&c.,\"
pp.
11
and
12.)
24\"Poverty
seems
favourable
to
generation.\"
(A.
Smith.)
This
is
even
a
specially
wise
arrangement
of
God,
according
to
the
gallant
and
witty
Abbé
Galiani
\"Iddio
af
che
gli
uomini
che
esercitano
mestieri
di
prima
utilità
nascono
abbondantemente.\"(Galiani,
l.
c.,
p.
78.)
[God
ordains
that
men
who
carry
on
trades
of
primary
utility
are
born
in
abundance]
\"Misery
up
to
the
extreme
point
of
famine
and
pestilence,
instead
of
checking,tends
to
increase
population.\"
(S.
Laing,
\"National
Distress,\"1844,
p.
69.)
After
Laing
has
illustrated
this
by
statistics,
he
continues:
\"If
the
people
were
all
in
easy
circumstances,
the
world
would
soon
be
depopulated.\"
25\"De
jour
en
jour
il
devient
donc
plus
clair
que
les
rapports
de
production
dans
lesquels
se
meut
la
bourgeoisie
n'ont
pas
un
caractère
un,
un
caractère
simple,
mais
un
caractère
de
duplicité;
que
dans
les
mêmes
rapports
dans
lesquels
se
produit
la
richesse,
la
misère
se
produit
aussi;
que
dans
les
mêmes
rapports
dans
lesquels
il
y
a
développement
des
forces
productives,
il
y
a
une
force
productive
de
répression;
que
ces
rapports
ne
produisent
la
richesse
bourgeoise,
c'est-à
dire
la
richesse
de
la
classe
bourgeoise,
qu'en
anéantissant
continuellement
la
richesse
des
membres
intégrants
de
cette
classe
et
en
produisant
un
prolétariat
toujours
croissant.\"
[From
day
to
day
it
thus
becomes
clearer
that
the
production
relations
in
which
the
bourgeoisie
moves
have
not
a
simple,
uniform
character,
but
a
dual
character;
that
in
the
selfsame
relations
in
which
wealth
is
produced,
poverty
is
produced
also;
that
in
the
selfsame
relations
in
which
there
is
a
development
of
productive
forces,
there
is
also
a
force
producing
repression;that
there
relations
produce
bourgeois
wealth,
i.e.,
the
wealth
of
the
bourgeois
class,
only
by
continually
annihilating
the
wealth
of
the
individual
members
of
this
class
and
by
producing
an
evergrowing
proletariat]
(Karl
Marx:
\"Misère
de
la
Philosophie,\"
p.
116.)
26G.
Ortes:
\"Delia
Economia
Nazionale
libri
sei,
1777,\"
in
Custodi,
Parte
Moderna,
t.
xxi,
pp.
6,
9,
22,
25,
etc.
Ortes
says,
l.
c.,
p.
32:
\"In
luoco
di
progettar
sistemi
inutili
per
la
felicità
de'popoli,
mi
limiterò
a
investigare
la
regione
della
loro
infelicità.\"
[Instead
of
projecting
useless
systems
for
achieving
the
happiness
of
people,
I
shall
limit
myself
to
investigating
the
reasons
for
their
unhappiness]
27\"A
Dissertation
on
the
Poor
Laws.
By
a
Well-wisher
of
Mankind.
(The
Rev.
J.
Townsend)
1786,\"
republished
Lond.1817,
pp.
15,
39,
41.
This
\"delicate\"
parson,
from
whose
work
just
quoted,
as
well
as
from
his
\"Journey
through
Spain,\"Malthus
often
copies
whole
pages,
himself
borrowed
the
greater
part
of
his
doctrine
from
Sir
James
Steuart,
whom
he
however
alters
in
the
borrowing.
E.g.,
when
Steuart
says:\"Here,
in
slavery,
was
a
forcible
method
of
making
mankind
diligent,\"
[for
the
non-workers]
...
\"Men
were
then
forced
to
work\"
[i.e.,to
work
gratis
for
others],
\"because
they
were
slaves
of
others;
men
are
now
forced
to
work\"
[i.e.,
to
work
gratis
for
non-workers]
\"because
they
are
the
slaves
of
their
necessities,\"he
does
not
thence
conclude,
like
the
fat
holder
of
benefices,that
the
wage
labourer
must
always
go
fasting.
He
wishes,
on
the
contrary,
to
increase
their
wants
and
to
make
the
increasing
number
of
their
wants
a
stimulus
to
their
labour
for
the
\"more
delicate.\"
28Storch,
l.
c.,
t.
iii,
p.
223.
29Sismondi,
l.
c.,
pp.
79,
80,
85.
30Destutt
de
Tracy,
l.
c.,
p.
231:
\"Les
nations
pauvres,
c'est
là
où
le
peuple
est
à
son
aise;
et
les
nations
riches,
c'est
là
où
il
est
ordinairement
pauvre.\"
[The
poor
nations
are
those
where
the
people
are
comfortably
off;
and
the
rich
nations,
those
where
the
people
are
generally
poor]
31\"Tenth
Report
of
the
Commissioners
of
H.
M.
Inland
Revenue.\"
Lond.,
1866.
p.
38.
32lbidem.
33These
figures
are
sufficient
for
comparison,
but,
taken
absolutely,
are
false,
since,
perhaps,
￡100,000,000
of
income
are
annually
not
declared.
The
complaints
of
the
Inland
Revenue
Commissioners
of
systematic
fraud,
especially
on
the
part
of
the
commercial
and
industrial
classes,
are
repeated
in
each
of
their
reports.
So
e.g.,
\"A
Joint-stock
company
returns￡6,000
as
assessable
profits,
the
surveyor
raises
the
amount
to￡88,000,
and
upon
that
sum
duty
is
ultimately
paid.
Another
company
which
returns
￡190,000
is
finally
compelled
to
admit
that
the
true
return
should
be
￡250,000.\"
(Ibid.,
p,
42.)
34\"Census,
&c.,\"
l.
c.,
p.
29.
John
Bright's
assertion
that
150
landlords
own
half
of
England,
and
12
half
the
Scotch
soil,
has
never
been
refuted.
35\"Fourth
Report,
&c.,
of
Inland
Revenue.\"
Lond.,
1860,
p.17.
36hese
are
the
net
incomes
after
certain
legally
authorised
abatements.
37At
this
moment,
March,
1867,
the
Indian
and
Chinese
market
is
again
overstocked
by
the
consignments
of
the
British
cotton
manufacturers.
In
1866
a
reduction
in
wages
of
5
per
cent.
took
place
amongst
the
cotton
operatives.
In
1867,
as
consequence
of
a
similar
operation,
there
was
a
strike
of
20,000
men
at
Preston.
[Added
in
the
4th
German
edition.
—That
was
the
prelude
to
the
crisis
which
broke
out
immediately
afterwards.
—
F.
E.]
38\"Census,
&c.,\"
l.
c.,
P.
11.
39Gladstone
in
the
House
of
Commons,
Feb.
13th,
1843.Times,
Feb.
14th,
1843
—
\"It
is
one
of
the
most
melancholy
features
in
the
social
state
of
this
country
that
we
see,
beyond
the
possibility
of
denial,
that
while
there
is
at
this
moment
a
decrease
in
the
consuming
powers
of
the
people,
an
increase
of
the
pressure
of
privations
and
distress;
there
is
at
the
same
time
a
constant
accumulation
of
wealth
in
the
upper
classes,
an
increase
of
the
luxuriousness
of
their
habits,
and
of
their
means
of
enjoyment.\"
(Hansard,
13th
Feb.)
40Gladstone
in
the
House
of
Commons,
April
16th,
1863.Morning
Star,
April
17th.
41See
the
official
accounts
in
the
Blue
book:
\"Miscellaneous
Statistics
of
the
United
Kingdom,\"
Part
vi.,
London,
1866,pp.
260-273,
passim.
Instead
of
the
statistics
of
orphan
asylums,
&c.,
the
declamations
of
the
ministerial
journals
in
recommending
dowries
for
the
Royal
children
might
also
serve.
The
greater
dearness
of
the
means
of
subsistence
is
never
forgotten
there.
42Gladstone,
House
of
Commons,
7th
April,
1864.
—\"The
Hansard
version
runs:
'Again,
and
yet
more
at
large
—what
is
human
life,
but,
in
the
majority
of
cases,
a
struggle
for
existence.'
The
continual
crying
contradictions
in
Gladstone's
Budget
speeches
of
1863
and
1864
were
characterised
by
an
English
writer
by
the
following
quotation
from
Boileau:
\"Voilà
l'homme
en
effet.
Il
va
du
blanc
au
noir,
Il
condamne
au
matin
ses
sentiments
du
soir.
Importun
à
tout
autre,
à
soi-même
incommode,
Il
change
à
tout
moment
d'esprit
comme
de
mode.\"
[Such
is
the
man:
he
goes
from
black
to
white.
\/
He
condemns
in
the
morning
what
he
felt
in
the
evening.
\/
A
nuisance
to
everyone
else,
and
an
inconvenience
to
himself,
\/he
changes
his
way
of
thinking
as
easily
as
he
changes
his
way
of
dressing]
(\"The
Theory
of
Exchanges,
&c.,\"
London,
1864,
p.
135.)
43H.
Fawcett,
l.
c.,
pp.
67-82.
As
to
the
increasing
dependence
of
labourers
on
the
retail
shopkeepers,
this
is
the
consequence
of
the
frequent
oscillations
and
interruptions
of
their
employment.
44Wales
here
is
always
included
in
England.
45A
peculiar
light
is
thrown
on
the
advance
made
since
the
time
of
Adam
Smith,
by
the
fact
that
by
him
the
word\"workhouse\"
is
still
occasionally
used
as
synonymous
with\"manufactory\";
e.g.,
the
opening
of
his
chapter
on
the
division
of
labour;
\"those
employed
in
every
different
branch
of
the
work
can
often
be
collected
into
the
same
workhouse.\"
46\"Public
Health.
Sixth
Report,
1864,\"
p.
13.
47l.
c.,
p.
17.
48l.
c.,
p.
13.
49l.
c.,
Appendix,
p.
232.
50l.
c.,
pp.
232,
233.
51l.
c.,
pp.
14,
15.
52\"In
no
particular
have
the
rights
of
persons
been
so
avowedly
and
shamefully
sacrificed
to
the
rights
of
property
as
in
regard
to
the
lodging
of
the
labouring
class.
Every
large
town
may
be
looked
upon
as
a
place
of
human
sacrifice,
a
shrine
where
thousands
pass
yearly
through
the
fire
as
offerings
to
the
moloch
of
avarice,\"
S.
Laing,
l.
c.,
p.
150.
53\"Public
Health,
Eighth
Report.
1866.\"
p.
14,
note.
54.
c.,
p.
89.
With
reference
to
the
children
in
these
colonies,
Dr.
Hunter
says:
\"People
are
not
now
alive
to
tell
us
how
children
were
brought
up
before
this
age
of
dense
agglomerations
of
poor
began,
and
he
would
be
a
rash
prophet
who
should
tell
us
what
future
behaviour
is
to
be
expected
from
the
present
growth
of
children,
who,
under
circumstances
probably
never
before
paralleled
in
this
country,
are
now
completing
their
education
for
future
practice,
as
'dangerous
classes'
by
sitting
up
half
the
night
with
persons
of
every
age,half
naked,
drunken,
obscene,
and
quarrelsome.\"
(l.
c.,
p.
56.)
55l.
c.,
p.
62.
56\"Report
of
the
Officer
of
Health
of
St.
Martins-in-the
Fields,
1865.\"
57\"Public
Health,
Eighth
Report,
1866,\"
p.
91.
58l.
c.,
p.
88.
59l.
c.,
p.
88.
60l.
c.,
p.
89.
61l.
c.,
p.
55
and
56.
62l.
c.,
p.
149.
63l.
c.,
p.
50.
64
l.c.
p.
111
(no
male
over
18)
65l.
c.,
p.
114.
66l.
c.,
p.
50.
67\"Public
Health.
Seventh
Report.
1865,\"
p.
18.
68l.
c.,
p.
165.
69l.
c.,
p.
18,
Note.
—
The
Relieving
Officer
of
the
Chapel
en-le-Frith
Union
reported
to
the
Registar-General
as
follows:—
\"At
Doveholes,
a
number
of
small
excavations
have
been
made
into
a
large
hillock
of
lime
ashes
(the
refuse
of
lime
kilns),
and
which
are
used
as
dwellings,
and
occupied
by
labourers
and
others
employed
in
the
construction
of
a
railway
now
in
course
of
construction
through
that
neighbourhood.
The
excavations
are
small
and
damp,
and
have
no
drains
or
privies
about
them,
and
not
the
slightest
means
of
ventilation
except
up
a
hole
pulled
through
the
top,
and
used
for
a
chimney.
In
consequence
of
this
defect,
small-pox
has
been
raging
for
some
time,
and
some
deaths
[amongst
the
troglodytes]
have
been
caused
by
it.\"
(l.
c.,
note
2.)
70The
details
given
at
the
end
of
Part
IV.
refer
especially
to
the
labourers
in
coal
mines.
On
the
still
worse
condition
in
metal
mines,
see
the
very
conscientious
Report
of
the
Royal
Commission
of
1864.
71l.
c.,
pp.
180,
182.
72l.
c.,
pp.
515,
517.
73l.
c.,
p.
16.
74\"Wholesale
starvation
of
the
London
Poor....
Within
the
last
few
days
the
walls
of
London
have
been
placarded
with
large
posters,
bearing
the
following
remarkable
announcement:—
'Fat
oxen!
Starving
men!
The
fat
oxen
from
their
palace
of
glass
have
gone
to
feed
the
rich
in
their
luxurious
abode,
while
the
starving
men
are
left
to
rot
and
die
in
their
wretched
dens.'The
placards
bearing
these
ominous
words
are
put
up
at
certain
intervals.
No
sooner
has
one
set
been
defaced
or
covered
over,than
a
fresh
set
is
placarded
in
the
former,
or
some
equally
public
place....
This
...
reminds
one
of
the
secret
revolutionary
associations
which
prepared
the
French
people
for
the
events
of
1789....
At
this
moment,
while
English
workmen
with
their
wives
and
children
are
dying
of
cold
and
hunger,
there
are
millions
of
English
gold
—
the
produce
of
English
labour
—being
invested
in
Russian,
Spanish,
Italian,
and
other
foreign
enterprises.\"
—Reynolds'
Newspaper,
January
20th,
1867.
75James
E.
Thorold
Rogers.
(Prof.
of
Polit.
Econ.
in
the
University
of
Oxford.)
\"A
History
of
Agriculture
and
Prices
in
England.\"
Oxford,
1866,
v.
1,
p.
690.
This
work,
the
fruit
of
patient
and
diligent
labour,
contains
in
the
two
volumes
that
have
so
far
appeared,
only
the
period
from
1259
to
1400.
The
second
volume
contains
simply
statistics.
It
is
the
first
authentic\"History
of
Prices\"
of
the
time
that
we
possess.
76\"Reasons
for
the
Late
Increase
of
the
Poor-Rates:
or
a
comparative
view
of
the
prices
of
labour
and
provisions.\"Lond.,
1777,
pp.
5,
11.
77Dr.
Richard
Price:
\"Observations
on
Reversionary
Payments,\"
6th
Ed.
By
W.
Morgan,
Lond.,
1803,
v.
II.,
pp.158,
159.
Price
remarks
on
p.
159:
\"The
nominal
price
of
day
labour
is
at
present
no
more
than
about
four
times,
or,
at
most,five
times
higher
than
it
was
in
the
year
1514.
But
the
price
of
corn
is
seven
times,
and
of
flesh-meat
and
raiment
about
fifteen
times
higher.
So
far,
therefore,
has
the
price
of
labour
been
even
from
advancing
in
proportion
to
the
increase
in
the
expenses
of
living,
that
it
does
not
appear
that
it
bears
now
half
the
proportion
to
those
expenses
that
it
did
bear.\"
78Barton,
l.
c.,
p.
26.
For
the
end
of
the
18th
century
cf.Eden,
l.
c.
79Parry,
l.
c.,
p.
86.
80ibid.,
p.
213.
81S.
Laing,
l.
c.,
p.
62.
82\"England
and
America.\"
Lond.,
1833,
Vol.
1,
p.
47.
83London
Economist,
May
29th,
1845,
p.
290.
84The
landed
aristocracy
advanced
themselves
to
this
end,of
course
per
Parliament,
funds
from
the
State
Treasury,
at
a
very
low
rate
of
interest,
which
the
farmers
have
to
make
good
at
a
much
higher
rate.
85The
decrease
of
the
middle-class
farmers
can
be
seen
especially
in
the
census
category:
\"Farmer's
son,
grandson,brother,
nephew,
daughter,
granddaughter,
sister,
niece\";
in
a
word,
the
members
of
his
own
family,
employed
by
the
farmer.This
category
numbered,
in
1851,
216,851
persons;
in
1861,only
176,151.
From
1851
to
1871,
the
farms
under
20
acres
fell
by
more
than
900
in
number;
those
between
50
and
75
acres
fell
from
8,253
to
6,370;
the
same
thing
occurred
with
all
other
farms
under
100
acres.
On
the
other
hand,
during
the
same
twenty
years,
the
number
of
large
farms
increased;
those
of
300-500
acres
rose
from
7,771
to
8,410,
those
of
more
than
500
acres
from
2,755
to
3,914,
those
of
more
than
1,000
acres
from
492
to
582.
86The
number
of
shepherds
increased
from
12,517
to
25,559.
87Census,
l.
c.,
p.
36.
88Rogers,
l.
c.,
p.
693,
p.
10.
Mr.
Rogers
belongs
to
the
Liberal
School,
is
a
personal
friend
of
Cobden
and
Bright,
and
therefore
no
laudator
temporis
acti.
89\"Public
Health.
Seventh
Report,\"
1865,
p.
242.
It
is
therefore
nothing
unusual
either
for
the
landlord
to
raise
a
labourer's
rent
as
soon
as
he
hears
that
he
is
earning
a
little
more,
or
for
the
farmer
to
lower
the
wage
of
the
labourer,\"because
his
wife
has
found
a
trade,\"
l.
c.
90l.
c.,
p.
135.
91l.
c.,
p.
134.
92\"Report
of
the
Commissioners
...
relating
to
Transportation
and
Penal
Servitude,\"
Lond.,
1863,
pp.
42,
50.
93l.
c.,
p.
77.
\"Memorandum
by
the
Lord
Chief
Justice.\"
94l.
c.,
Vol.
II,
Minutes
of
Evidence.
95l.
c.,
Vol.
1.
Appendix,
p.
280.
96l.
c.,
pp.
274,
275.
97\"Public
Health,
Sixth
Report,\"
1864,
pp.
238,
249,
261,262.
98l.
c.,
p.
262.
99l.
c.,
p.
17.
The
English
agricultural
labourer
receives
only
1\/4
as
much
milk,
and
as
much
bread
as
the
Irish.
Arthur
Young
in
his
\"Tour
in
Ireland,\"
at
the
beginning
of
this
century,already
noticed
the
better
nourishment
of
the
latter.
The
reason
is
simply
this,
that
the
poor
Irish
farmer
is
incomparably
more
humane
than
the
rich
English.
As
regards
Wales,
that
which
is
said
in
the
text
holds
only
for
the
southwest.
All
the
doctors
there
agree
that
the
increase
of
the
death-rate
through
tuberculosis,
scrofula,
etc.,
increases
in
intensity
with
the
deterioration
of
the
physical
condition
of
the
population,and
all
ascribe
this
deterioration
to
poverty.
\"His
(the
farm
labourer's)
keep
is
reckoned
at
about
five
pence
a
day,
but
in
many
districts
it
was
said
to
be
of
much
less
cost
to
the
farmer\"[himself
very
poor]....
\"A
morsel
of
the
salt
meat
or
bacon,
...salted
and
dried
to
the
texture
of
mahogany,
and
hardly
worth
the
difficult
process
of
assimilation
...
is
used
to
flavour
a
large
quantity
of
broth
or
gruel,
of
meal
and
leeks,
and
day
after
day
this
is
the
labourer's
dinner.\"
The
advance
of
industry
resulted
for
him,
in
this
harsh
and
damp
climate,
in
\"the
abandonment
of
the
solid
homespun
clothing
in
favour
of
the
cheap
and
so-called
cotton
goods,\"
and
of
stronger
drinks
for
so-called
tea.
\"The
agriculturist,
after
several
hours'
exposure
to
wind
and
rain,
pins
his
cottage
to
sit
by
a
fire
of
peat
or
of
balls
of
clay
and
small
coal
kneaded
together,
from
which
volumes
of
carbonic
and
sulphurous
acids
are
poured
forth.
His
walls
are
of
mud
and
stones,
his
floor
the
bare
earth
which
was
there
before
the
hut
was
built,
his
roof
a
mass
of
loose
and
sodden
thatch.
Every
crevice
is
topped
to
maintain
warmth,
and
in
an
atmosphere
of
diabolic
odour,
with
a
mud
floor,
with
his
only
clothes
drying
on
his
back,
he
often
sups
and
sleeps
with
his
wife
and
children.
Obstetricians
who
have
passed
parts
of
the
night
in
such
cabins
have
described
how
they
found
their
feet
sinking
in
the
mud
of
the
floor,
and
they
were
forced
(easy
task)
to
drill
a
hole
through
the
wall
to
effect
a
little
private
respiration.
It
was
attested
by
numerous
witnesses
in
various
grades
of
life,
that
to
these
insanitary
influences,
and
many
more,
the
underfed
peasant
was
nightly
exposed,
and
of
the
result,
a
debilitated
and
scrofulous
people,
there
was
no
want
of
evidence....
The
statements
of
the
relieving
officers
of
Carmarthenshire
and
Cardiganshire
show
in
a
striking
way
the
same
state
of
things.
There
is
besides
\"a
plague
more
horrible
still,
the
great
number
of
idiots.\"
Now
a
word
on
the
climatic
conditions.
\"A
strong
south-west
wind
blows
over
the
whole
country
for
8
or
9
months
in
the
year,
bringing
with
it
torrents
of
rain,
which
discharge
principally
upon
the
western
slopes
of
the
hills.
Trees
are
rare,
except
in
sheltered
places,
and
where
not
protected,
are
blown
out
of
all
shape.
The
cottages
generally
crouch
under
some
bank,
or
often
in
a
ravine
or
quarry,
and
none
but
the
smallest
sheep
and
native
cattle
can
live
on
the
pastures....
The
young
people
migrate
to
the
eastern
mining
districts
of
Glamorgan
and
Monmouth.
Carmarthenshire
is
the
breeding
ground
of
the
mining
population
and
their
hospital.The
population
can
therefore
barely
maintain
its
numbers.\"
Thus
in
Cardiganshire:
Dr.
Hunter's
Report
in
\"Public
Health,
Seventh
Report.1865,\"
pp.
498-502,
passim.
100In
1865
this
law
was
improved
to
some
extent.
It
will
soon
be
learnt
from
experience
that
tinkering
of
this
sort
is
of
no
use.
101In
order
to
understand
that
which
follows,
we
must
remember
that
\"Close
Villages\"
are
those
whose
owners
are
one
or
two
large
landlords.
\"Open
villages,\"
those
whose
soil
belongs
to
many
smaller
landlords.
It
is
in
the
latter
that
building
speculators
can
build
cottages
and
lodging-houses.
102A
show-village
of
this
kind
looks
very
nice,
but
is
as
unreal
as
the
villages
that
Catherine
II.
saw
on
her
journey
to
the
Crimea.
In
recent
times
the
shepherd
also
has
often
been
banished
from
these
show-villages;
e.g.,
near
Market
Harboro
is
sheep-farm
of
about
500
acres,
which
only
employs
the
labour
of
one
man.
To
reduce
the
long
trudges
over
these
wide
plains,
the
beautiful
pastures
of
Leicester
and
Northampton,the
shepherd
used
to
get
a
cottage
on
the
farm.
Now
they
give
him
a
thirteenth
shilling
a
week
for
lodging,
that
he
must
find
far
away
in
an
open
village.
103\"The
labourers'
houses
(in
the
open
villages,
which,
of
course,
are
always
overcrowded)
are
usually
in
rows,
built
with
their
backs
against
the
extreme
edge
of
the
plot
of
land
which
the
builder
could
call
his,
and
on
this
account
are
not
allowed
light
and
air,
except
from
the
front.\"
(Dr.
Hunter's
Report,
l.
c.,
p.
135.)
Very
often
the
beerseller
or
grocer
of
the
village
is
at
the
same
time
the
letter
of
its
houses.
In
this
case
the
agricultural
labourer
finds
in
him
a
second
master,besides
the
farmer.
He
must
be
his
customer
as
well
as
his
tenant.
\"The
hind
with
his
10s.
a
week,
minus
a
rent
of
￡4
a
year
...
is
obliged
to
buy
at
the
seller's
own
terms,
his
modicum
of
tea,
sugar,
flour,
soap,
candles,
and
beer.\"
(l.
c.,
p.
132.)
These
open
villages
form,
in
fact,
the
\"penal
settlements\"
of
the
English
agricultural
proletariat.
Many
of
the
cottages
are
simply
lodging-houses,
through
which
all
the
rabble
of
the
neighbourhood
passes.
The
country
labourer
and
his
family
who
had
often,
in
a
way
truly
wonderful,
preserved,
under
the
foulest
conditions,
a
thoroughness
and
purity
of
character,go,
in
these,
utterly
to
the
devil.
It
is,
of
course,
the
fashion
amongst
the
aristocratic
shylocks
to
shrug
their
shoulders
pharisaically
at
the
building
speculators,
the
small
landlords,and
the
open
villages.
They
know
well
enough
that
their
\"close
villages\"
and
\"show-villages\"
are
the
birth-places
of
the
open
villages,
and
could
not
exist
without
them.
\"The
labourers
...were
it
not
for
the
small
owners,
would,
for
by
far
the
most
part,
have
to
sleep
under
the
trees
of
the
farms
on
which
they
work.\"
(l.
c.,
p.
135.)
The
system
of
\"open\"
and
\"closed\"villages
obtains
in
all
the
Midland
counties
and
throughout
the
East
of
England.
104\"The
employer
...
is
...
directly
or
indirectly
securing
to
himself
the
profit
on
a
man
employed
at
10s.
a
week,
and
receiving
from
this
poor
hind
￡4
or
￡5
annual
rent
for
houses
not
worth
￡20
in
a
really
free
market,
but
maintained
at
their
artificial
value
by
the
power
of
the
owner
to
say
'Use
my
house,or
go
seek
a
hiring
elsewhere
without
a
character
from
me....'Does
a
man
wish
to
better
himself,
to
go
as
a
plate-layer
on
the
railway,
or
to
begin
quarry-work,
the
same
power
is
ready
with'Work
for
me
at
this
low
rate
of
wages
or
begone
at
a
week's
notice;
take
your
pig
with
you,
and
get
what
you
can
for
the
potatoes
growing
in
your
garden.'
Should
his
interest
appear
to
be
better
served
by
it,
an
enhanced
rent
is
sometimes
preferred
in
these
cases
by
the
owner
(i.e.,
the
farmer)
as
the
penalty
for
leaving
his
service.\"
(Dr.
Hunter,
l.
c.,
p.
132.)
105\"New
married
couples
are
no
edifying
study
for
grown
up
brothers
and
sisters:
and
though
instances
must
not
be
recorded,
sufficient
data
are
remembered
to
warrant
the
remark,that
great
depression
and
sometimes
death
are
the
lot
of
the
female
participator
in
the
offence
of
incest.\"
(Dr.
Hunter,
l.
c.,p.
137.)
A
member
of
the
rural
police
who
had
for
many
years
been
a
detective
in
the
worst
quarters
of
London,
says
of
the
girls
of
his
village:
\"their
boldness
and
shamelessness
I
never
saw
equalled
during
some
years
of
police
life
and
detective
duty
in
the
worst
parts
of
London
....
They
live
like
pigs,
great
boys
and
girls,
mothers
and
fathers,
all
sleeping
in
one
room,in
many
instances.\"
(\"Child.
Empl.
Com.
Sixth
Report,
1867,\"p.
77
sq.
155.)
106\"Public
Health.
Seventh
Report,
1865,\"
pp.
9,
14
passim.
107\"The
heaven-born
employment
of
the
hind
gives
dignity
even
to
his
position.
He
is
not
a
slave,
but
a
soldier
of
peace,and
deserves
his
place
in
married
men's
quarters
to
be
provided
by
the
landlord,
who
has
claimed
a
power
of
enforced
labour
similar
to
that
the
country
demands
of
the
soldier.
He
no
more
receives
market-price
for
his
work
than
does
the
soldier.
Like
the
soldier
he
is
caught
young,
ignorant,
knowing
only
his
own
trade,
and
his
own
locality.
Early
marriage
and
the
operation
of
the
various
laws
of
settlement
affect
the
one
as
enlistment
and
the
Mutiny
Act
affect
the
other.\"
(Dr.
Hunter,
l.
c.,
p.
132.)
Sometimes
an
exceptionally
soft-hearted
landlord
relents
as
the
solitude
he
has
created.
\"It
is
a
melancholy
thing
to
stand
alone
in
one's
country,\"
said
Lord
Leicester,
when
complimented
on
the
completion
of
Hookham.
\"I
look
around
and
not
a
house
is
to
be
seen
but
mine.
I
am
the
giant
of
Giant
Castle,
and
have
eat
up
all
my
neighbours.\"
108A
similar
movement
is
seen
during
the
last
ten
years
in
France;
in
proportion
as
capitalist
production
there
takes
possession
of
agriculture,
it
drives
the
\"surplus\"
agricultural
population
into
the
towns.
Here
also
we
find
deterioration
in
the
housing
and
other
conditions
at
the
source
of
the
surplus
population.
On
the
special
\"prolétariat
foncier,\"
to
which
this
system
of
parcelling
out
the
land
has
given
rise,
see,
among
others,
the
work
of
Colins,
already
quoted,
and
Karl
Marx\"Der
Achtzehnte
Brumaire
des
Louis
Bonaparte.\"
2nd
edition.Hamburg,
1869,
pp.
56,
&c.
In
1846,
the
town
population
in
France
was
represented
by
24.42,
the
agricultural
by
75.58;
in
1861,
the
town
by
28.86,
the
agricultural
by
71.14
per
cent.During
the
last
5
years,
the
diminution
of
the
agricultural
percentage
of
the
population
has
been
yet
more
marked.
As
early
as
1846,
Pierre
Dupont
in
his
\"Ouvriers\"
sang:
Mal
vêtus,
logés
dans
des
trous,
Sous
les
combles,
dans
les
décombres,
Nous
vivons
avec
les
hiboux
Et
les
larrons,
amis
des
ombres.
[Badly
clothed,
living
in
holes,
under
the
eaves,
in
the
ruins,with
the
owls
and
the
thieves,
companions
of
the
shadows]
109\"Sixth
and
last
Report
of
the
Children's
Employment
Commission,\"
published
at
the
end
of
March,
1867.
It
deals
solely
with
the
agricultural
gang-system.
110\"Child.
Emp.
Comm.,
VI.
Report.\"
Evidence
173,
p.
37.
111Some
gang-masters,
however,
have
worked
themselves
up
to
the
position
of
farmers
of
500
acres,
or
proprietors
of
whole
rows
of
houses.
112\"Half
the
girls
of
Ludford
have
been
ruined
by
going
out\"
(in
gangs).
l.
c.,
p.
6,
§
32.
113\"They
(gangs)
have
greatly
increased
of
late
years.In
some
places
they
are
said
to
have
been
introduced
at
comparatively
late
dates;
in
others
where
gangs
...
have
been
known
for
many
years
...
more
and
younger
children
are
employed
in
them.\"
(l.
c.,
p.
79,
§
174).
114\"Small
farmers
never
employ
gangs.\"
\"It
is
not
on
poor
land,
but
on
land
which
affords
rent
of
from
40
to
50
shillings,
that
women
and
children
are
employed
in
the
greatest
numbers.\"
(l.
c.,
pp.
17,
14.)
115To
one
of
these
gentlemen
the
taste
of
his
rent
was
so
grateful
that
he
indignantly
declared
to
the
Commission
of
Inquiry
that
the
whole
hubbub
was
only
due
to
the
name
of
the
system.
If
instead
of
\"gang\"
it
were
called
\"the
Agricultural
Juvenile
Industrial
Self-supporting
Association,\"
everything
would
be
all
right.
116\"Gang
work
is
cheaper
than
other
work;
that
is
why
they
are
employed,\"
says
a
former
gang-master
(l.
c.,
p.
17,
§
14).\"The
gang-system
is
decidedly
the
cheapest
for
the
farmer,and
decidedly
the
worst
for
the
children,\"
says
a
farmer
(l.
c.,p.
16,
§
3.)
117\"Undoubtedly
much
of
the
work
now
done
by
children
in
gangs
used
to
be
done
by
men
and
women.
More
men
are
out
of
work
now
where
children
and
women
are
employed
than
formerly.\"
(l.
c.,
p.
43,
n.
202.)
On
the
other
hand,
\"the
labour
question
in
some
agricultural
districts,
particularly
the
arable,is
becoming
so
serious
in
consequence
of
emigration,
and
the
facility
afforded
by
railways
for
getting
to
large
towns
that
I
(the
\"I\"
is
the
steward
of
a
great
lord)
think
the
services
of
children
are
most
indispensable,\"
(l.
c.,
p.
80,
n.
180.)
For
the\"labour
question\"
in
English
agricultural
districts,
differently
from
the
rest
of
the
civilised
world,
means
the
landlords'and
farmers'
question,
viz.,
how
is
it
possible,
despite
an
always
increasing
exodus
of
the
agricultural
folk,
to
keep
up
a
sufficient
relative
surplus
population
in
the
country,
and
by
means
of
it
keep
the
wages
of
the
agricultural
labourer
at
a
minimum
118The
\"Public
Health
Report,\"
where
in
dealing
with
the
subject
of
children's
mortality,
the
gang-system
is
treated
in
passing,
remains
unknown
to
the
press,
and,
therefore,
to
the
English
public.
On
the
other
hand,
the
last
report
of
the\"Child.
Empl.
Comm.\"
afforded
the
press
sensational
copy
always
welcome.
Whilst
the
Liberal
press
asked
how
the
fine
gentlemen
and
ladies,
and
the
well-paid
clergy
of
the
State
Church,
with
whom
Lincolnshire
swarms,
could
allow
such
a
system
to
arise
on
their
estates,
under
their
very
eyes,
they
who
send
out
expressly
missions
to
the
Antipodes,
\"for
the
improvement
of
the
morals
of
South
Sea
Islanders\"
—
the
more
refined
press
confined
itself
to
reflections
on
the
coarse
degradation
of
the
agricultural
population
who
are
capable
of
selling
their
children
into
such
slavery!
Under
the
accursed
conditions
to
which
these
\"delicate\"
people
condemn
the
agricultural
labourer,
it
would
not
be
surprising
if
he
ate
his
own
children.
What
is
really
wonderful
is
the
healthy
integrity
of
character,
he
has,
in
great
part,
retained.
The
official
reports
prove
that
the
parents,
even
in
the
gang
districts,
loathe
the
gang-system.
\"There
is
much
in
the
evidence
that
shows
that
the
parents
of
the
children
would,
in
many
instances,
be
glad
to
be
aided
by
the
requirements
of
a
legal
obligation,
to
resist
the
pressure
and
the
temptations
to
which
they
are
often
subject.They
are
liable
to
be
urged,
at
times
by
the
parish
officers,at
times
by
employers,
under
threats
of
being
themselves
discharged,
to
be
taken
to
work
at
an
age
when
...
school
attendance
...
would
be
manifestly
to
their
greater
advantage....All
that
time
and
strength
wasted;
all
the
suffering
from
extra
and
unprofitable
fatigue
produced
to
the
labourer
and
to
his
children;
every
instance
in
which
the
parent
may
have
traced
the
moral
ruin
of
his
child
to
the
undermining
of
delicacy
by
the
over-crowding
of
cottages,
or
to
the
contaminating
influences
of
the
public
gang,
must
have
been
so
many
incentives
to
feelings
in
the
minds
of
the
labouring
poor
which
can
be
well
understood,
and
which
it
would
be
needless
to
particularise.
They
must
be
conscious
that
much
bodily
and
mental
pain
has
thus
been
inflicted
upon
them
from
causes
for
which
they
were
in
no
way
answerable;
to
which,
had
it
been
in
their
power,
they
would
have
in
no
way
consented;
and
against
which
they
were
powerless
to
struggle.\"
(l.
c.,
p.
xx.,
§
82,
and
xxiii.,
n.
96.)
119Population
of
Ireland,
1801,
5,319,867
persons;
1811,6,084,996;
1821,
6,869,544;
1831,
7,828,347;
1841,
8,222,664.
120The
result
would
be
found
yet
more
unfavourable
if
we
went
further
back.
Thus:
Sheep
in
1865,
3,688,742,
but
in
1856,
3,694,294.
Pigs
in
1865,
1,299,893,
but
in
1858,1,409,883
121The
data
of
the
text
are
put
together
from
the
materials
of
the
\"Agricultural
Statistics,
Ireland,
General
Abstracts,Dublin,\"
for
the
years
1860,
et
seq.,
and
\"Agricultural
Statistics,
Ireland.
Tables
showing
the
estimated
average
produce,
&c.,
Dublin,
1866.\"
These
statistics
are
official,
and
laid
before
Parliament
annually.
Note
to
2nd
edition.
The
official
statistics
for
the
year
1872
show,
as
compared
with
1871,
a
decrease
in
area
under
cultivation
of
134,915
acres.
An
increase
occurred
in
the
cultivation
of
green
crops,
turnips,
mangold-wurzel,
and
the
like;
a
decrease
in
the
area
under
cultivation
for
wheat
of
16,000
acres;
oats,
14,000;
barley
and
rye,
4,000;
potatoes,
66,632;
flax,
34,667;
grass,
clover,
vetches,
rape-seed,
30,000.The
soil
under
cultivation
for
wheat
shows
for
the
last
5
years
the
following
stages
of
decrease:
—
1868,
285,000
acres;
1869,280,000;
1870,
259,000;
1871,
244,000;
1872,
228,000.
For
1872
we
find,
in
round
numbers,
an
increase
of
2,600
horses,
80,000
horned
cattle,
68,609
sheep,
and
a
decrease
of
236,000
pigs.
122The
total
yearly
income
under
Schedule
D.
is
different
in
this
table
from
that
which
appears
in
the
preceding
ones,because
of
certain
deductions
allowed
by
law.
123If
the
product
also
diminishes
relatively
per
acre,
it
must
not
be
forgotten
that
for
a
century
and
a
half
England
has
indirectly
exported
the
soil
of
Ireland,
without
as
much
as
allowing
its
cultivators
the
means
for
making
up
the
constituents
of
the
soil
that
had
been
exhausted.
124As
Ireland
is
regarded
as
the
promised
land
of
the\"principle
of
population,\"
Th.
Sadler,
before
the
publication
of
his
work
on
population,
issued
his
famous
book,
\"Ireland,
its
Evils
and
their
Remedies.\"
2nd
edition,
London,
1829.
Here,by
comparison
of
the
statistics
of
the
individual
provinces,
and
of
the
individual
counties
in
each
province,
he
proves
that
the
misery
there
is
not,
as
Malthus
would
have
it,
in
proportion
to
the
number
of
the
population,
but
in
inverse
ratio
to
this.
精選分類
