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28According
to
the
annual
report
(1863)
of
the
Essen
chamber
of
commerce,
there
was
produced
in
1862,
at
the
cast-steel
works
of
Krupp,
with
its
161
furnaces,
thirty-two
steam-engines
(in
the
year
1800
this
was
about
the
number
of
all
the
steam-engines
working
in
Manchester),
and
fourteen
steam-hammers
(representing
in
all
1,236
horse-power)
forty
nine
forges,
203
tool-machines,
and
about
2,400
workmen
—thirteen
million
pounds
of
cast
steel.
Here
there
are
not
two
workmen
to
each
horse-power.
29Babbage
estimates
that
in
Java
the
spinning
labour
alone
adds
117%
to
the
value
of
the
cotton.
At
the
same
period(1832)
the
total
value
added
to
the
cotton
by
machinery
and
labour
in
the
fine-spinning
industry,
amounted
to
about
33%
of
the
value
of
the
cotton.
(\"On
the
Economy
of
Machinery,\"
pp.165,
166.)
30Machine
printing
also
economises
colour.
31See
Paper
read
by
Dr.
Watson,
Reporter
on
Products
to
the
Government
of
India,
before
the
Society
of
Arts,
17th
April,1860.
32\"These
mute
agents
(machines)
are
always
the
produce
of
much
less
labour
than
that
which
they
displace,
even
when
they
are
of
the
same
money-value.\"
(Ricardo,
l.c.,
p.
40.)
33Hence
in
a
communistic
society
there
would
be
a
very
different
scope
for
the
employment
of
machinery
than
there
can
be
in
a
bourgeois
society.
34\"Employers
of
labour
would
not
unnecessarily
retain
two
sets
of
children
under
thirteen....
In
fact
one
class
of
manufacturers,
the
spinners
of
woollen
yarn,
now
rarely
employ
children
under
thirteen
years
of
age,
i.e.,
half-timers.They
have
introduced
improved
and
new
machinery
of
various
kinds,
which
altogether
supersedes
the
employment
of
children(i.e.,
under
13
years);
f.
i.,
I
will
mention
one
process
as
an
illustration
of
this
diminution
in
the
number
of
children,wherein
by
the
addition
of
an
apparatus,
called
a
piecing
machine,
to
existing
machines,
the
work
of
six
or
four
half
timers,
according
to
the
peculiarity
of
each
machine,
can
be
performed
by
one
young
person
(over
13
years)...
the
half
time
system
'stimulated'
the
invention
of
the
piecing
machine.\"(Reports
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1858.)
35\"Wretch\"
is
the
recognised
term
in
English
Political
Economy
for
the
agricultural
labourer.
36\"Machinery
...
can
frequently
not
be
employed
until
labour
(he
means
wages)
rises.\"
(Ricardo,
l.c.,
p.
479.)
37See
\"Report
of
the
Social
Science
Congress,
at
Edinburgh.\"
Oct.,
1863.
38Dr.
Edward
Smith,
during
the
cotton
crisis
caused
by
the
American
Civil
War,
was
sent
by
the
English
Government
to
Lancashire,
Cheshire,
and
other
places,
to
report
on
the
sanitary
condition
of
the
cotton
operatives.
He
reported,
that
from
a
hygienic
point
of
view,
and
apart
from
the
banishment
of
the
operatives
from
the
factory
atmosphere,
the
crisis
had
several
advantages.
The
women
now
had
sufficient
leisure
to
give
their
infants
the
breast,
instead
of
poisoning
them
with
\"Godfrey's
cordial.\"
They
had
time
to
learn
to
cook.
Unfortunately
the
acquisition
of
this
art
occurred
at
a
time
when
they
had
nothing
to
cook.
But
from
this
we
see
how
capital,
for
the
purposes
of
its
self-expansion,
has
usurped
the
labour
necessary
in
the
home
of
the
family.
This
crisis
was
also
utilised
to
teach
sewing
to
the
daughters
of
the
workmen
in
sewing
schools.
An
American
revolution
and
a
universal
crisis,
in
order
that
the
working
girls,
who
spin
for
the
whole
world,
might
learn
to
sew!
39\"The
numerical
increase
of
labourers
has
been
great,through
the
growing
substitution
of
female
for
male,
and
above
all,
of
childish
for
adult
labour.
Three
girls
of
13,
at
wages
of
from
6
shillings
to
8
shillings
a
week,
have
replaced
the
one
man
of
mature
age,
of
wages
varying
from
18
shillings
to
45
shillings.\"
(Th.
de
Quincey:
\"The
Logic
of
Political
Econ.,\"
London,
1844.
Note
to
p.
147.)
Since
certain
family
functions,
such
as
nursing
and
suckling
children,
cannot
be
entirely
suppressed,
the
mothers
confiscated
by
capital,
must
try
substitutes
of
some
sort.
Domestic
work,
such
as
sewing
and
mending,
must
be
replaced
by
the
purchase
of
ready-made
articles.
Hence,
the
diminished
expenditure
of
labour
in
the
house
is
accompanied
by
an
increased
expenditure
of
money.The
cost
of
keeping
the
family
increases,
and
balances
the
greater
income.
In
addition
to
this,
economy
and
judgment
in
the
consumption
and
preparation
of
the
means
of
subsistence
becomes
impossible.
Abundant
material
relating
to
these
facts,
which
are
concealed
by
official
Political
Economy,
is
to
be
found
in
the
Reports
of
the
Inspectors
of
Factories,
of
the
Children's
Employment
Commission,
and
more
especially
in
the
Reports
on
Public
Health.
40In
striking
contrast
with
the
great
fact,
that
the
shortening
of
the
hours
of
labour
of
women
and
children
in
English
factories
was
exacted
from
capital
by
the
male
operatives,we
find
in
the
latest
reports
of
the
Children's
Employment
Commission
traits
of
the
operative
parents
in
relation
to
the
traffic
in
children,
that
are
truly
revolting
and
thoroughly
like
slave-dealing.
But
the
Pharisee
of
a
capitalist,
as
may
be
seen
from
the
same
reports,
denounces
this
brutality
which
he
himself
creates,
perpetuates,
and
exploits,
and
which
he
moreover
baptises
\"freedom
of
labour.\"
\"Infant
labour
has
been
called
into
aid
...
even
to
work
for
their
own
daily
bread.Without
strength
to
endure
such
disproportionate
toil,
without
instruction
to
guide
their
future
life,
they
have
been
thrown
into
a
situation
physically
and
morally
polluted.
The
Jewish
historian
has
remarked
upon
the
overthrow
of
Jerusalem
by
Titus
that
it
was
no
wonder
it
should
have
been
destroyed,
with
such
a
signal
destruction,
when
an
inhuman
mother
sacrificed
her
own
offspring
to
satisfy
the
cravings
of
absolute
hunger.\"(\"Public
Economy
Concentrated.\"
Carlisle,
1833,
p.
66.)
41A.
Redgrave
in
\"Reports
of
lnsp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
October,1858,\"
pp.
40,
41.
42\"Children's
Employment
Commission,
Fifth
Report,\"London,
1866,
p.
81,
n.
31.
[Added
in
the
4th
German
edition.—
The
Bethnal
Green
silk
industry
is
now
almost
destroyed.
—F.
E.]
43\"Children's
Employment
Commission,
Third
Report,\"London,
1864,
p.
53,
n.
15.
44l.c.,
Fifth
Report,
p.
22,
n.
137.
45\"Sixth
Report
on
Public
Health,\"
Lond.,
1864,
p.
34.
46\"It
(the
inquiry
of
1861)...
showed,
moreover,
that
while,with
the
described
circumstances,
infants
perish
under
the
neglect
and
mismanagement
which
their
mothers'
occupations
imply,
the
mothers
become
to
a
grievous
extent
denaturalised
towards
their
offspring
—
commonly
not
troubling
themselves
much
at
the
death,
and
even
sometimes...
taking
direct
measures
to
insure
it.\"
(l.c.)
47l.c.,
p.
454.
48l.c.,
pp.
454-463.
\"Report
by
Dr.
Henry
Julian
Hunter
on
the
excessive
mortality
of
infants
in
some
rural
districts
of
England.\"
49l.c.,
p.
35
and
pp.
455,
456.
50l.c.,
p.
456.
51In
the
agricultural
as
well
as
in
the
factory
districts
the
consumption
of
opium
among
the
grown-up
labourers,both
male
and
female,
is
extending
daily.
\"To
push
the
sale
of
opiate...
is
the
great
aim
of
some
enterprising
wholesale
merchants.
By
druggists
it
is
considered
the
leading
article.\"(l.c.,
p.
459.)
Infants
that
take
opiates
\"shrank
up
into
little
old
men,\"
or
\"wizened
like
little
monkeys.\"
(l.c.,
p.
460.)
We
here
see
how
India
and
China
avenged
themselves
on
England.
52l.c.,
p.
37.
53\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1862,\"
p.
59.
Mr.Baker
was
formerly
a
doctor.
54L.
Horner
in
\"Reports
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
30th
June,1857,\"
p.
17.
55L.
Horner
in
\"Rep.
of
lnsp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1855,\"pp.
18,
19.
56Sir
John
Kincaid
in
\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,1858,\"
pp.
31,
32.
57L.
Horner
in
\"Reports,
&c.,
for
31st
Oct.,
1857,\"
pp.
17,18.
58Sir
J.
Kincaid
in
\"Reports,
&c.,
31st
Oct.,
1856,\"
p.
66
59A.
Redgrave
in
\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,
31st.
Oct.,
1857,\"pp.
41-42.
In
those
industries
where
the
Factory
Act
proper
(not
the
Works
Act
referred
to
in
the
text)
has
been
in
force
for
some
time,
the
obstacles
in
the
way
of
the
education
clauses
have,
in
recent
years,
been
overcome.
In
industries
not
under
the
Act,
the
views
of
Mr.
J.
Geddes,
a
glass
manufacturer,
still
extensively
prevail.
He
informed
Mr.
White,
one
of
the
Inquiry
Commissioners:
\"As
far
as
I
can
see,
the
greater
amount
of
education
which
a
part
of
the
working-class
has
enjoyed
for
some
years
past
is
an
evil.
It
is
dangerous,
because
it
makes
them
independent.\"
(\"Children's
Empl.
Comm.,
Fourth
Report,\"
Lond.,
1865,
p.
253.)
60\"Mr.
E.,
a
manufacturer
...
informed
me
that
he
employed
females
exclusively
at
his
power-looms
...
gives
a
decided
preference
to
married
females,
especially
those
who
have
families
at
home
dependent
on
them
for
support;
they
are
attentive,
docile,
more
so
than
unmarried
females,
and
are
compelled
to
use
their
utmost
exertions
to
procure
the
necessaries
of
life.
Thus
are
the
virtues,
the
peculiar
virtues
of
the
female
character
to
be
perverted
to
her
injury
–
thus
all
that
is
most
dutiful
and
tender
in
her
nature
is
made
a
means
of
her
bondage
and
suffering.\"
(Ten
Hours'
Factory
Bill.
The
Speech
of
Lord
Ashley,
March
15th,
Lond.,
1844,
p.
20.)
61\"Since
the
general
introduction
of
machinery,
human
nature
has
been
forced
far
beyond
its
average
strength.\"
(Rob.Owen:
\"Observations
on
the
Effects
of
the
Manufacturing
System,\"
2nd
Ed.,
London,
1817.)
62The
English,
who
have
a
tendency
to
look
upon
the
earliest
form
of
appearance
of
a
thing
as
the
cause
of
its
existence,
are
in
the
habit
of
attributing
the
long
hours
of
work
in
factories
to
the
extensive
kidnapping
of
children,
practised
by
capitalists
in
the
infancy
of
the
factory
system,on
workhouses
and
orphanages,
by
means
of
which
robbery,unresisting
material
for
exploitation
was
procured.
Thus,for
instance,
Ficiden,
himself
a
manufacturer,
says:
\"It
is
evident
that
the
long
hours
of
work
were
brought
about
by
the
circumstance
of
so
great
a
number
of
destitute
children
being
supplied
from
different
parts
of
the
country,
that
the
masters
were
independent
of
the
hands,
and
that
having
once
established
the
custom
by
means
of
the
miserable
materials
they
had
procured
in
this
way,
they
could
impose
it
on
their
neighbours
with
the
greater
facility.\"
(J.
Ficiden:
\"The
Curse
of
the
Factory
System,\"
Lond.,
1836,
p.
I
1.)
With
reference
to
the
labour
of
women,
Saunders,
the
factory
inspector,
says
in
his
report
of
1844:
\"Amongst
the
female
operatives
there
are
some
women
who,
for
many
weeks
in
succession,
except
for
a
few
days,
are
employed
from
6
a.
m.
till
midnight,
with
less
than
2
hours
for
meals,
so
that
on
5
days
of
the
week
they
have
only
6
hours
left
out
of
the
24,
for
going
to
and
from
their
homes
and
resting
in
bed.\"
63\"Occasion...
injury
to
the
delicate
moving
parts
of
metallic
mechanism
by
inaction.\"
(Ure,
l.c.,
p.
281.)
64The
Manchester
Spinner
(
Times,
26th
Nov.,
1862)
before
referred
to
says
in
relation
to
this
subject:
\"It
(namely,
the\"allowance
for
deterioration
of
machinery\")
is
also
intended
to
cover
the
loss
which
is
constantly
arising
from
the
superseding
of
machines
before
they
are
worn
out,
by
others
of
a
new
and
better
construction.\"
65\"It
has
been
estimated,
roughly,
that
the
first
individual
of
a
newly-invented
machine
will
cost
about
five
times
as
much
as
the
construction
of
the
second.\"
(Babbage,
l.c.,
p.
349.)
66\"The
improvements
which
took
place
not
long
ago
in
frames
for
making
patent
net
were
so
great
that
a
machine
in
good
repair
which
had
cost
￡1,200,
sold
a
few
years
after
for￡60
...
improvements
succeeded
each
other
so
rapidly,
that
machines
which
had
never
been
finished
were
abandoned
in
the
hands
of
their
makers,
because
new
improvements
had
superseded
their
utility.\"
(Babbage,
l.c.,
p.
233.)
In
these
stormy,
go-ahead
times,
therefore,
the
tulle
manufacturers
soon
extended
the
working
day,
by
means
of
double
sets
of
hands,from
the
original
8
hours
to
24.
67\"It
is
self-evident,
that,
amid
the
ebbings
and
flowings
of
the
markets
and
the
alternate
expansions
and
contractions
of
demand,
occasions
will
constantly
recur,
in
which
the
manufacturer
may
employ
additional
floating
capital
without
employing
additional
fixed
capital...
if
additional
quantities
of
raw
material
can
be
worked
up
without
incurring
an
additional
expense
for
buildings
and
machinery.\"
(R.
Torrens:
\"On
Wages
and
Combination.\"
London,
1834,
p.
64.)
68This
circumstance
is
mentioned
only
for
the
sake
of
completeness,
for
I
shall
not
consider
the
rate
of
profit,
i.e.,
the
ratio
of
the
surplus-value
to
the
total
capital
advanced,
until
I
come
to
the
third
book.
69Senior,
\"Letters
on
the
Factory
Act.\"
London,
1837,
pp.13,
14.
70\"The
great
proportion
of
fixed
to
circulating
capital
...makes
long
hours
of
work
desirable.\"
With
the
increased
use
of
machinery,
&c.,
\"the
motives
to
long
hours
of
work
will
become
greater,
as
the
only
means
by
which
a
large
proportion
of
fixed
capital
can
be
made
profitable.\"
(l.c.,
pp.
11-13.)\"There
are
certain
expenses
upon
a
mill
which
go
on
in
the
same
proportion
whether
the
mill
be
running
short
or
full
time,
as,
for
instance,
rent
rates,
and
taxes,
insurance
against
fire,
wages
of
several
permanent
servants,
deterioration
of
machinery,
with
various
other
charges
upon
a
manufacturing
establishment,
the
proportion
of
which
to
profits
increases
as
the
production
decreases.\"
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1862,\"
p.
19.)
71Why
it
is,
that
the
capitalist,
and
also
the
political
economists
who
are
imbued
with
his
views,
are
unconscious
of
this
immanent
contradiction,
will
appear
from
the
first
part
of
the
third
book.
72It
is
one
of
the
greatest
merits
of
Ricardo
to
have
seen
in
machinery
not
only
the
means
of
producing
commodities,
but
of
creating
a
\"redundant
population.\"
73F.
Biese.
\"Die
Philosophie
des
Aristoteles,\"
Vol.
2.
Berlin,1842,
p.
408.
74I
give
below
the
translation
of
this
poem
by
Stolberg,because
it
brings
into
relief,
quite
in
the
spirit
of
former
quotations
referring
to
division
of
labour,
the
antithesis
between
the
views
of
the
ancients
and
the
moderns.
\"Spare
the
hand
that
grinds
the
corn,
Oh,
miller
girls,
and
softly
sleep.
Let
Chanticleer
announce
the
morn
in
vain!
Deo
has
commanded
the
work
of
the
girls
to
be
done
by
the
Nymphs,
and
now
they
skip
lightly
over
the
wheels,
so
that
the
shaken
axles
revolve
with
their
spokes
and
pull
round
the
load
of
the
revolving
stones.
Let
us
live
the
life
of
our
fathers,
and
let
us
rest
from
work
and
enjoy
the
gifts
that
the
Goddess
sends
us.\"
\"Schonet
der
mahlenden
Hand,
o
Müllerinnen,
und
schlafet
Sanft!
es
verkünde
der
Hahn
euch
den
Morgen
umsonst!
Do
hat
die
Arbeit
der
Midchen
den
Nymphen
befohlen,Und
itzt
hüpfen
sic
leicht
über
die
Rder
dahin,
Da
die
erschütterten
Achsen
mit
ihren
Speichen
sich
wlzen,
Und
im
Kreise
die
Last
drehen
des
wlzenden
Steins.
Lat
uns
leben
das
Leben
der
Vter,
und
laBt
uns
der
Gaben
Arbeitslos
uns
freun,
welche
die
Gttin
uns
schenkt.\"
(Gedichte
aus
dem
Griechischen
übersetzt
von
Christian
Graf
zu
Stolberg,
Hamburg,
1782.
)
75There
are,
of
course,
always
differences,
in
the
intensities
of
the
labour
in
various
industries.
But
these
differences
are,as
Adam
Smith
has
shown,
compensated
to
a
partial
extent
by
minor
circumstances,
peculiar
to
each
sort
of
labour.
Labour
time,
as
a
measure
of
value,
is
not,
however,
affected
in
this
case,
except
in
so
far
as
the
duration
of
labour,
and
the
degree
of
its
intensity,
are
two
antithetical
and
mutually
exclusive
expressions
for
one
and
the
same
quantity
of
labour.
76Especially
by
piece-work,
a
form
we
shall
investigate
in
Part
VI.
of
this
book.
77See
\"Rep.
of
lnsp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
October,
1865.\"
78Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
1844
and
the
quarter
ending
30th
April,
1845,
pp.
20-21.
79l.c.,
p.
19.
Since
the
wages
for
piece-work
were
unaltered,the
weekly
wages
depended
on
the
quantity
produced.
80l.c.,
p.
20.
81The
moral
element
played
an
important
part
in
the
above
experiments.
The
workpeople
told
the
factory
inspector:
\"We
work
with
more
spirit,
we
have
the
reward
ever
before
us
of
getting
away
sooner
at
night,
and
one
active
and
cheerful
spirit
pervades
the
whole
mill,
from
the
youngest
piecer
to
the
oldest
hand,
and
we
can
greatly
help
each
other.\"
(l.c.,
p.
21.)
82John
Fielden,
l.c.,
p.
32.
83Lord
Ashley,
l.c.,
pp.
6-9,
passim.
84Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
Quarter
ending
30th
September,1844,
and
from
1st
October,
1844,
to
30th
April,
1845,
p.
20.
85l.c.,
p.
22.
86\"Rep.
of
lnsp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
October,
1862,\"
p.
62.
87This
was
altered
in
the
\"Parliamentary
Return\"
of
1862.In
it
the
actual
horse-power
of
the
modern
steam
engines
and
water
wheels
appears
in
place
of
the
nominal.
The
doubling
spindles,
too,
are
no
longer
included
in
the
spinning
spindles(as
was
the
case
in
the
\"Returns\"
of
1839,
1850,
and
1856);further,
in
the
case
of
woollen
mills,
the
number
of
\"gigs\"
is
added,
a
distinction
made
between
jute
and
hemp
mills
on
the
one
hand
and
flax
mills
on
the
other,
and
finally
stocking
weaving
is
for
the
first
time
inserted
in
the
report.
88\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
October,
1856,\"
pp.
13-14,20
and
1852,
p.
23.
89l.c.,
pp.
14-15.
90l.c.,
p.
20.
91\"Reports,
&c.,
for
31st
October,
1858,\"
pp.
9-10.Compare
\"Reports,
&c.,
for
30th
April,
1860,\"
p.
30,
sqq.
92\"Reports
of
lnsp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1862,\"
pp.
100
and
130.
93On
2
modern
power-looms
a
weaver
now
makes
in
a
week
of
60
hours
26
pieces
of
certain
quality,
length,
and
breadth;
while
on
the
old
power-looms
he
could
make
no
more
than
4
such
pieces.
The
cost
of
weaving
a
piece
of
such
cloth
had
already
soon
after
1850
fallen
from
2s.
9d.
to
5
1\/8d.
\"Thirty
years
ago
(1841)
one
spinner
with
three
placers
was
not
required
to
attend
to
more
than
one
pair
of
mules
with
300324
spindles.
At
the
present
time
(1871)
he
has
to
mind
with
the
help
of
5
piecers
2,200
spindles,
and
produces
not
less
than
seven
times
as
much
yarn
as
in
1841.\"
(Alex.
Redgrave,Factory
Inspector
–
in
the
Journal
of
Arts,
5th
January,
1872.)
94\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1861,\"
pp.
25,
26.
95The
agitation
for
a
working
day
of
8
hours
has
now(1867)
begun
in
Lancashire
among
the
factory
operatives.
96The
following
few
figures
indicate
the
increase
in
the\"factories\"
of
the
United
Kingdom
since
1848:
See
the
Blue
books
\"Statistical
Abstract
of
the
United
Kingdom,\"
Nos.
8
and
13.
Lond.,
1861
and
1866.
In
Lancashire
the
number
of
mills
increased
only
4
per
cent.between
1839
and
1850;
19
per
cent.
between
1850
and
1856;and
33
per
cent.
between
1856
and
1862;
while
the
persons
employed
in
them
during
each
of
the
above
periods
of
11
years
increased
absolutely,
but
diminished
relatively.
(See
\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,
for
31st
Oct.,
1862,\"
p.
63.)
The
cotton
trade
preponderates
in
Lancashire.
We
may
form
an
idea
of
the
stupendous
nature
of
the
cotton
trade
in
that
district
when
we
consider
that,
of
the
gross
number
of
textile
factories
in
the
United
Kingdom,
it
absorbs
45.2
per
cent.,
of
the
spindles
83.3
per
cent.,
of
the
power-looms
81.4
per
cent.,
of
the
mechanical
horse-power
72.6
per
cent.,
and
of
the
total
number
of
persons
employed
58.2
per
cent.
(l.c.,
pp.
62-63.)
97Ure,
l.c.,
p.
18.
98Ure,
l.c.,
P.
3
1.
See
Karl
Marx,
l.c.,
pp.
140-141.
99It
looks
very
like
intentional
misleading
by
statistics(which
misleading
it
would
be
possible
to
prove
in
detail
in
other
cases
too),
when
the
English
factory
legislation
excludes
from
its
operation
the
class
of
labourers
last
mentioned
in
the
text,
while
the
parliamentary
returns
expressly
include
in
the
category
of
factory
operatives,
not
only
engineers,
mechanics,&c.,
but
also
managers,
salesmen,
messengers,
warehousemen,packers,
&c.,
in
short
everybody,
except
the
owner
of
the
factory
himself.
100Ure
grants
this.
He
says,
\"in
case
of
need,\"
the
workmen
can
be
moved
at
the
will
of
the
manager
from
one
machine
to
another,
and
he
triumphantly
exclaims:
\"Such
a
change
is
in
flat
contradiction
with
the
old
routine,
that
divides
the
labour,and
to
one
workman
assigns
the
task
of
fashioning
the
head
of
a
needle,
to
another
the
sharpening
of
the
point.\"
He
had
much
better
have
asked
himself,
why
this
\"old
routine\"
is
departed
from
in
the
automatic
factory,
only
\"in
case
of
need.
\"
101When
distress
is
very
great,
as,
for
instance,
during
the
American
Civil
War,
the
factory
operative
is
now
and
then
set
by
the
Bourgeois
to
do
the
roughest
of
work,
such
as
road-making,
&c..
The
English
\"ateliers
nationaux\"
[national
workshops]
of
1862
and
the
following
years,
established
for
the
benefit
of
the
destitute
cotton
operatives,
differ
from
the
French
of
1848
in
this,
that
in
the
latter
the
workmen
had
to
do
unproductive
work
at
the
expense
of
the
state,
in
the
former
they
had
to
do
productive
municipal
work
to
the
advantage
of
the
bourgeois,
and
that,
too,
cheaper
than
the
regular
workmen,with
whom
they
were
thus
thrown
into
competition.
\"The
physical
appearance
of
the
cotton
operatives
is
unquestionably
improved.
This
I
attribute
...
as
to
the
men,
to
outdoor
labour
on
public
works.\"
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,
31st
Oct.,
1863,\"
p.59.)
The
writer
here
alludes
to
the
Preston
factory
operatives,who
were
employed
on
Preston
Moor.
102An
example:
The
various
mechanical
apparatus
introduced
since
the
Act
of
1844
into
woollen
mills,
for
replacing
the
labour
of
children.
So
soon
as
it
shall
happen
that
the
children
of
the
manufacturers
themselves
have
to
go
through
a
course
of
schooling
as
helpers
in
the
mill,
this
almost
unexplored
territory
of
mechanics
will
soon
make
remarkable
progress.
\"Of
machinery,
perhaps
self-acting
mules
are
as
dangerous
as
any
other
kind.
Most
of
the
accidents
from
them
happen
to
little
children,
from
their
creeping
under
the
mules
to
sweep
the
floor
whilst
the
mules
are
in
motion.
Several'minders'
have
been
fined
for
this
offence,
but
without
much
general
benefit.
If
machine
makers
would
only
invent
a
self
sweeper,
by
whose
use
the
necessity
for
these
little
children
to
creep
under
the
machinery
might
be
prevented,
it
would
be
a
happy
addition
to
our
protective
measures.\"
(\"Reports
of
Insp.of
Fact.
for
31st.
Oct.,
1866,\"
p.
63.)
103So
much
then
for
Proudhon's
wonderful
idea:
he\"construes\"
machinery
not
as
a
synthesis
of
instruments
of
labour,
but
as
a
synthesis
of
detail
operations
for
the
benefit
of
the
labourer
himself.
104F.
Engels,
l.c.,
p.
217.
Even
an
ordinary
and
optimist
Free-trader,
like
Mr.
Molinari,
goes
so
far
as
to
say,
\"Un
homme
s'use
plus
vite
en
surveillant,
quinze
heures
par
jour,l'évolution
uniforme
d'un
mécanisme,
qu'en
exercant,
dans
le
même
espace
de
temps,
sa
force
physique.
Ce
travail
de
surveillance
qui
servirait
peut-être
d'utile
gymnastique
à
l'intelligence,
s'il
n'était
pas
trop
prolongé,
détruit
à
la
longue,par
son
excès,
et
l'intelligence,
et
le
corps
même.\"
[A
man
becomes
exhausted
more
quickly
when
he
watches
over
the
uniform
motion
of
mechanism
for
fifteen
hours
a
day,
than
when
he
applies
his
physical
strength
over
the
same
period
of
time.
This
labour
of
surveillance,
which
might
perhaps
serve
as
a
useful
exercise
for
the
mind,
if
it
did
not
go
on
too
long,destroys
both
the
mind
and
the
body
in
the
long
run,
through
excessive
application]
(G.
de
Molinari:
\"études
économiques.\"Paris,
1846.)
105F.
Engels,
l.c.,
p.
216.
106\"The
Master
Spinners'
and
Manufacturers'
Defence
Fund.
Report
of
the
Committee.\"
Manchester,
1854,
p.
17.
We
shall
see
hereafter,
that
the
\"master\"
can
sing
quite
another
song,
when
he
is
threatened
with
the
loss
of
his
\"living\"automaton.
107Ure,
l.c.,
p.
15.
Whoever
knows
the
life
history
of
Arkwright,
will
never
dub
this
barber-genius
\"noble.\"
Of
all
the
great
inventors
of
the
18th
century,
he
was
incontestably
the
greatest
thiever
of
other
people's
inventions
and
the
meanest
fellow.
108\"The
slavery
in
which
the
bourgeoisie
has
bound
the
proletariat,
comes
nowhere
more
plainly
into
daylight
than
in
the
factory
system.
In
it
all
freedom
comes
to
an
end
both
at
law
and
in
fact.
The
workman
must
be
in
the
factory
at
half
past
five.
If
he
come
a
few
minutes
late,
he
is
punished;
if
he
come
10
minutes
late,
he
is
not
allowed
to
enter
until
after
breakfast,
and
thus
loses
a
quarter
of
a
day's
wage.
He
must
eat,
drink
and
sleep
at
word
of
command....
The
despotic
bell
calls
him
from
his
bed,
calls
him
from
breakfast
and
dinner.And
how
does
he
fare
in
the
mill
There
the
master
is
the
absolute
law-giver.
He
makes
what
regulations
he
pleases;
he
alters
and
makes
additions
to
his
code
at
pleasure;
and
if
he
insert
the
veriest
nonsense,
the
courts
say
to
the
workman:Since
you
have
entered
into
this
contract
voluntarily,
you
must
now
carry
it
out
....
These
workmen
are
condemned
to
live,from
their
ninth
year
till
their
death,
under
this
mental
and
bodily
torture.\"
(F.
Engels,
l.c.,
p.
217,
sq.)
What,
\"the
courts
say,\"
I
will
illustrate
by
two
examples.
One
occurs
at
Sheffield
at
the
end
of
1866.
In
that
town
a
workman
had
engaged
himself
for
2
years
in
a
steelworks.
In
consequence
of
a
quarrel
with
his
employer
he
left
the
works,
and
declared
that
under
no
circumstances
would
he
work
for
that
master
any
more.He
was
prosecuted
for
breach
of
contract,
and
condemned
to
two
months'
imprisonment.
(If
the
master
break
the
contract,he
can
be
proceeded
against
only
in
a
civil
action,
and
risks
nothing
but
money
damages.)
After
the
workman
has
served
his
two
months,
the
master
invites
him
to
return
to
the
works,pursuant
to
the
contract.
Workman
says:
No,
he
has
already
been
punished
for
the
breach.
The
master
prosecutes
again,
the
court
condemns
again,
although
one
of
the
judges,
Mr.
Shee,publicly
denounces
this
as
a
legal
monstrosity,
by
which
a
man
can
periodically,
as
long
as
he
lives,
be
punished
over
and
over
again
for
the
same
offence
or
crime.
This
judgment
was
given
not
by
the
\"Great
Unpaid,\"
the
provincial
Dogberries,
but
by
one
of
the
highest
courts
of
justice
in
London.
—
[Added
inthe
4th
German
edition.
—
This
has
now
been
done
away
with.With
few
exceptions,
e.g.,
when
public
gas-works
are
involved,the
worker
in
England
is
now
put
on
an
equal
footing
with
the
employer
in
case
of
breach
of
contract
and
can
be
sued
only
civilly.
—
F.
E.]
The
second
case
occurs
in
Wiltshire
at
the
end
of
November
1863.
About
30
power-loom
weavers,
in
the
employment
of
one
Harrup,
a
cloth
manufacturer
at
Leower's
Mill,
Westbury
Leigh,
struck
work
because
master
Harrup
indulged
in
the
agreeable
habit
of
making
deductions
from
their
wages
for
being
late
in
the
morning;
6d.
for
2
minutes;
1s.
for
3
minutes,
and
1s.
6d.
for
ten
minutes.
This
is
at
the
rate
of
9s.
per
hour,
and
￡4
10s.
0d.
per
diem;
while
the
wages
of
the
weavers
on
the
average
of
a
year,
never
exceeded
10s.
to
12s.weekly.
Harrup
also
appointed
a
boy
to
announce
the
starting
time
by
a
whistle,
which
he
often
did
before
six
o'clock
in
the
morning:
and
if
the
hands
were
not
all
there
at
the
moment
the
whistle
ceased,
the
doors
were
closed,
and
those
hands
who
were
outside
were
fined:
and
as
there
was
no
clock
on
the
premises,
the
unfortunate
hands
were
at
the
mercy
of
the
young
Harrup-inspired
time-keeper.
The
hands
on
strike,
mothers
of
families
as
well
as
girls,
offered
to
resume
work
if
the
timekeeper
were
replaced
by
a
clock,
and
a
more
reasonable
scale
of
fines
were
introduced.
Harrup
summoned
I9
women
and
girls
before
the
magistrates
for
breach
of
contract.
To
the
utter
indignation
of
all
present,
they
were
each
mulcted
in
a
fine
of
6d.
and
2s.
6d.
for
costs.
Harrup
was
followed
from
the
court
by
a
crowd
of
people
who
hissed
him.
A
favourite
operation
with
manufacturers
is
to
punish
the
workpeople
by
deductions
made
from
their
wages
on
account
of
faults
in
the
material
worked
on.
This
method
gave
rise
in
1866
to
a
general
strike
in
the
English
pottery
districts.
The
reports
of
the
Ch.
Empl.
Com.
(1863-1866),
give
cases
where
the
worker
not
only
receives
no
wages,
but
becomes,
by
means
of
his
labour,
and
of
the
penal
regulations,
the
debtor
to
boot,
of
his
worthy
master.
The
late
cotton
crisis
also
furnished
edifying
examples
of
the
sagacity
shown
by
the
factory
autocrats
in
making
deductions
from
wages.
Mr.
R.
Baker,
the
Inspector
of
Factories,
says,
\"I
have
myself
had
lately
to
direct
prosecutions
against
one
cotton
mill
occupier
for
having
in
these
pinching
and
painful
times
deducted
10d.
a
piece
from
some
of
the
young
workers
employed
by
him,
for
the
surgeon's
certificate(for
which
he
himself
had
only
paid
6d.),
when
only
allowed
by
the
law
to
deduct
3d.,
and
by
custom
nothing
at
all
....And
I
have
been
informed
of
another,
who,
in
order
to
keep
without
the
law,
but
to
attain
the
same
object,
charges
the
poor
children
who
work
for
him
a
shilling
each,
as
a
fee
for
learning
them
the
art
and
mystery
of
cotton
spinning,
so
soon
as
they
are
declared
by
the
surgeon
fit
and
proper
persons
for
that
occupation.
There
may
therefore
be
undercurrent
causes
for
such
extraordinary
exhibitions
as
strikes,
not
only
wherever
they
arise,
but
particularly
at
such
times
as
the
present,
which
without
explanation,
render
them
inexplicable
to
the
public
understanding.\"
He
alludes
here
to
a
strike
of
power-loom
weavers
at
Darwen,
June,
1863.
(\"Reports
of
Insp.
of
Fact.for
30
April,
1863,\"
pp.
50-51.)
The
reports
always
go
beyond
their
official
dates.
109The
protection
afforded
by
the
Factory
Acts
against
dangerous
machinery
has
had
a
beneficial
effect.
\"But
...
there
are
other
sources
of
accident
which
did
not
exist
twenty
years
since;
one
especially,
viz.,
the
increased
speed
of
the
machinery.Wheels,
rollers,
spindles
and
shuttles
are
now
propelled
at
increased
and
increasing
rates;
fingers
must
be
quicker
and
defter
in
their
movements
to
take
up
the
broken
thread,
for,
if
placed
with
hesitation
or
carelessness,
they
are
sacrificed....A
large
number
of
accidents
are
caused
by
the
eagerness
of
the
workpeople
to
get
through
their
work
expeditiously.
It
must
be
remembered
that
it
is
of
the
highest
importance
to
manufacturers
that
their
machinery
should
be
in
motion,
i.e.,producing
yarns
and
goods.
Every
minute's
stoppage
is
not
only
a
loss
of
power,
but
of
production,
and
the
workpeople
are
urged
by
the
overlookers,
who
are
interested
in
the
quantity
of
work
turned
off,
to
keep
the
machinery
in
motion,
and
it
is
no
less
important
to
those
of
the
operatives
who
are
paid
by
the
weight
or
piece,
that
the
machines
should
be
kept
in
motion.Consequently,
although
it
is
strictly
forbidden
in
many,
nay
in
most
factories,
that
machinery
should
be
cleaned
while
in
motion,
it
is
nevertheless
the
constant
practice
in
most,
if
not
in
all,
that
the
workpeople
do,
unreproved,
pick
out
waste,
wipe
rollers
and
wheels,
&c.,
while
their
frames
are
in
motion.
Thus
from
this
cause
only,
906
accidents
have
occurred
during
the
six
months....
Although
a
great
deal
of
cleaning
is
constantly
going
on
day
by
day,
yet
Saturday
is
generally
the
day
set
apart
for
the
thorough
cleaning
of
the
machinery,
and
a
great
deal
of
this
is
done
while
the
machinery
is
in
motion.\"
Since
cleaning
is
not
paid
for,
the
workpeople
seek
to
get
done
with
it
as
speedily
as
possible.
Hence
\"the
number
of
accidents
which
occur
on
Fridays,
and
especially
on
Saturdays,
is
much
larger
than
on
any
other
day.
On
the
former
day
the
excess
is
nearly
12
per
cent.
over
the
average
number
of
the
four
first
days
of
the
week,
and
on
the
latter
day
the
excess
is
25
per
cent.
over
the
average
of
the
preceding
five
days;
or,
if
the
number
of
working-hours
on
Saturday
being
taken
into
account
—
7hours
on
Saturday
as
compared
with
10
on
other
days
—there
is
an
excess
of
65
per
cent.
on
Saturdays
over
the
average
of
the
other
five
days.\"
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,
31st
Oct.,1866,\"
pp.
9,
15,
16,
17.)
110In
Part
I.
of
Book
III.
I
shall
give
an
account
of
a
recent
campaign
by
the
English
manufacturers
against
the
Clauses
in
the
Factory
Acts
that
protect
the
\"hands\"
against
dangerous
machinery.
For
the
present,
let
this
one
quotation
from
the
official
report
of
Leonard
Horner
suffice:
\"I
have
heard
some
mill-owners
speak
with
inexcusable
levity
of
some
of
the
accidents;
such,
for
instance,
as
the
loss
of
a
finger
being
a
trifling
matter.
A
working-man's
living
and
prospects
depend
so
much
upon
his
fingers,
that
any
loss
of
them
is
a
very
serious
matter
to
him.
When
I
have
heard
such
inconsiderate
remarks
made,
I
have
usually
put
this
question:
Suppose
you
were
in
want
of
an
additional
workman,
and
two
were
to
apply,
both
equally
well
qualified
in
other
respects,
but
one
had
lost
a
thumb
or
a
forefinger,
which
would
you
engage
There
never
was
a
hesitation
as
to
the
answer....\"
The
manufacturers
have
\"mistaken
prejudices
against
what
they
have
heard
represented
as
a
pseudo
philanthropic
legislation.\"
(\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.,
31st
Oct.,1855.\")
These
manufacturers
are
clever
folk,
and
not
without
reason
were
they
enthusiastic
for
the
slave-holders'
rebellion.
111In
those
factories
that
have
been
longest
subject
to
the
Factory
Acts,
with
their
compulsory
limitation
of
the
hours
of
labour,
and
other
regulations,
many
of
the
older
abuses
have
vanished.
The
very
improvement
of
the
machinery
demands
to
a
certain
extent
\"improved
construction
of
the
buildings,\"
and
this
is
an
advantage
to
the
workpeople.
(See
\"Rep.
of
Insp.
of
Fact.
for
31st
Oct.,
1863,\"
p.
109.)
112See
amongst
others,
John
Houghton:
\"Husbandry
and
Trade
Improved.\"
London,
1727.
\"The
Advantages
of
the
East
India
Trade,
1720.\"
John
Bellers,
l.c.
\"The
masters
and
their
workmen
are,
unhappily,
in
a
perpetual
war
with
each
other.The
invariable
object
of
the
former
is
to
get
their
work
done
as
cheaply
as
possible;
and
they
do
not
fail
to
employ
every
artifice
to
this
purpose,
whilst
the
latter
are
equally
attentive
to
every
occasion
of
distressing
their
masters
into
a
compliance
with
higher
demands.\"
(\"An
Enquiry
into
the
Causes
of
the
Present
High
Price
of
Provisions,\"
pp.
61-62.
Author,
the
Rev.Nathaniel
Forster,
quite
on
the
side
of
the
workmen.)
113In
old-fashioned
manufactures
the
revolts
of
the
workpeople
against
machinery,
even
to
this
day,
occasionally
assume
a
savage
character,
as
in
the
case
of
the
Sheffield
file
cutters
in
1865.
114Sir
James
Steuart
also
understands
machinery
quite
in
this
sense.
\"Je
considère
donc
les
machines
comme
des
moyens
d'augmenter
(virtuellement)
le
nombre
des
gens
industrieux
qu'on
n'est
pas
obligé
de
nourrir....
En
quoi
l'effet
d'une
machine
diffère-t-il
de
celui
de
nouveaux
habitants\"(French
trans.
t.
I.,
l.
I.,
ch.
XIX.)
More
nave
is
Petty,
who
says,
it
replaces
\"Polygamy.\"
The
above
point
of
view
is,
at
the
most,
admissible
only
for
some
parts
of
the
United
States.
On
the
other
hand,
\"machinery
can
seldom
be
used
with
success
to
abridge
the
labour
of
an
individual;
more
time
would
be
lost
in
its
construction
than
could
be
saved
by
its
application.
It
is
only
really
useful
when
it
acts
on
great
masses,
when
a
single
machine
can
assist
the
work
of
thousands.
It
is
accordingly
in
the
most
populous
countries,
where
there
are
most
idle
men,that
it
is
most
abundant....
It
is
not
called
into
use
by
a
scarcity
of
men,
but
by
the
facility
with
which
they
can
be
brought
to
work
in
masses.\"
(Piercy
Ravenstone:
\"Thoughts
on
the
Funding
System
and
its
Effects.\"
London,
1824,
p.
45.)
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