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Section
1:
Two-Fold
Origin
of
Manufacture
That
co-operation
which
is
based
on
division
of
labour,
assumes
its
typical
form
in
manufacture,
and
is
the
prevalent
characteristic
form
of
the
capitalist
process
of
production
throughout
the
manufacturing
period
properly
so
called.
That
period,roughly
speaking,
extends
from
the
middle
of
the
16th
to
the
last
third
of
the
18th
century.
Manufacture
takes
its
rise
in
two
ways:
(1.)
By
the
assemblage,
in
one
workshop
under
the
control
of
a
single
capitalist,
of
labourers
belonging
to
various
independent
handicrafts,
but
through
whose
hands
a
given
article
must
pass
on
its
way
to
completion.
A
carriage,
for
example,
was
formerly
the
product
of
the
labour
of
a
great
number
of
independent
artificers,
such
as
wheelwrights,
harness-makers,tailors,
locksmiths,
upholsterers,
turners,
fringe
makers,
glaziers,
painters,
polishers,
gilders,
&c.In
the
manufacture
of
carriages,
however,
all
these
different
artificers
are
assembled
in
one
building
where
they
work
into
one
another's
hands.
It
is
true
that
a
carriage
cannot
be
gilt
before
it
has
been
made.
But
if
a
number
of
carriages
are
being
made
simultaneously,some
may
be
in
the
hands
of
the
gilders
while
others
are
going
through
an
earlier
process.
So
far,
we
are
still
in
the
domain
of
simple
co-operation,
which
finds
its
materials
ready
to
hand
in
the
shape
of
men
and
things.
But
very
soon
an
important
change
takes
place.The
tailor,
the
locksmith,
and
the
other
artificers,
being
now
exclusively
occupied
in
carriage-making,
each
gradually
loses,
through
want
of
practice,
the
ability
to
carry
on,
to
its
full
extent,
his
old
handicraft.
But,on
the
other
hand,
his
activity
now
confined
in
one
groove,
assumes
the
form
best
adapted
to
the
narrowed
sphere
of
action.
At
first,
carriage
manufacture
is
a
combination
of
various
independent
handicrafts.By
degrees,
it
becomes
the
splitting
up
of
carriage
making
into
its
various
detail
processes,
each
of
which
crystallises
into
the
exclusive
function
of
a
particular
workman,
the
manufacture,
as
a
whole,
being
carried
on
by
the
men
in
conjunction.
In
the
same
way,cloth
manufacture,
as
also
a
whole
series
of
other
manufactures,
arose
by
combining
different
handicrafts
together
under
the
control
of
a
single
capitalist.1
(2.)
Manufacture
also
arises
in
a
way
exactly
the
reverse
of
this
-
namely,
by
one
capitalist
employing
simultaneously
in
one
workshop
a
number
of
artificers,who
all
do
the
same,
or
the
same
kind
of
work,
such
as
making
paper,
type,
or
needles.
This
is
co-operation
in
its
most
elementary
form.
Each
of
these
artificers(with
the
help,
perhaps,
of
one
or
two
apprentices),makes
the
entire
commodity,
and
he
consequently
performs
in
succession
all
the
operations
necessary
for
its
production.
He
still
works
in
his
old
handicraft
like
way.
But
very
soon
external
circumstances
cause
a
different
use
to
be
made
of
the
concentration
of
the
workmen
on
one
spot,
and
of
the
simultaneousness
of
their
work.
An
increased
quantity
of
the
article
has
perhaps
to
be
delivered
within
a
given
time.
The
work
is
therefore
re-distributed.
Instead
of
each
man
being
allowed
to
perform
all
the
various
operations
in
succession,
these
operations
are
changed
into
disconnected,
isolated
ones,
carried
on
side
by
side;
each
is
assigned
to
a
different
artificer,
and
the
whole
of
them
together
are
performed
simultaneously
by
the
co-operating
workmen.
This
accidental
repartition
gets
repeated,
develops
advantages
of
its
own,
and
gradually
ossifies
into
a
systematic
division
of
labour.The
commodity,
from
being
the
individual
product
of
an
independent
artificer,
becomes
the
social
product
of
a
union
of
artificers,
each
of
whom
performs
one,
and
only
one,
of
the
constituent
partial
operations.
The
same
operations
which,
in
the
case
of
a
papermaker
belonging
to
a
German
Guild,
merged
one
into
the
other
as
the
successive
acts
of
one
artificer,
became
in
the
Dutch
paper
manufacture
so
many
partial
operations
carried
on
side
by
side
by
numerous
co-operating
labourers.The
needlemaker
of
the
Nuremberg
Guild
was
the
cornerstone
on
which
the
English
needle
manufacture
was
raised.
But
while
in
Nuremberg
that
single
artificer
performed
a
series
of
perhaps
20
operations
one
after
another,
in
England
it
was
not
long
before
there
were
20
needlemakers
side
by
side,
each
performing
one
alone
of
those
20
operations,
and
in
consequence
of
further
experience,
each
of
those
20
operations
was
again
split
up,
isolated,
and
made
the
exclusive
function
of
a
separate
workman.
The
mode
in
which
manufacture
arises,
its
growth
out
of
handicrafts,
is
therefore
two-fold.
On
the
one
hand,
it
arises
from
the
union
of
various
independent
handicrafts,
which
become
stripped
of
their
independence
and
specialised
to
such
an
extent
as
to
be
reduced
to
mere
supplementary
partial
processes
in
the
production
of
one
particular
commodity.
On
the
other
hand,
it
arises
from
the
co-operation
of
artificers
of
one
handicraft;
it
splits
up
that
particular
handicraft
into
its
various
detail
operations,
isolating,
and
making
these
operations
independent
of
one
another
up
to
the
point
where
each
becomes
the
exclusive
function
of
a
particular
labourer.
On
the
one
hand,therefore,
manufacture
either
introduces
division
of
labour
into
a
process
of
production,
or
further
develops
that
division;
on
the
other
hand,
it
unites
together
handicrafts
that
were
formerly
separate.
But
whatever
may
have
been
its
particular
starting-point,its
final
form
is
invariably
the
same
—
a
productive
mechanism
whose
parts
are
human
beings.
For
a
proper
understanding
of
the
division
of
labour
in
manufacture,
it
is
essential
that
the
following
points
be
firmly
grasped.
First,
the
decomposition
of
a
process
of
production
into
its
various
successive
steps
coincides,
here,
strictly
with
the
resolution
of
a
handicraft
into
its
successive
manual
operations.Whether
complex
or
simple,
each
operation
has
to
be
done
by
hand,
retains
the
character
of
a
handicraft,and
is
therefore
dependent
on
the
strength,
skill,quickness,
and
sureness,
of
the
individual
workman
in
handling
his
tools.
The
handicraft
continues
to
be
the
basis.
This
narrow
technical
basis
excludes
a
really
scientific
analysis
of
any
definite
process
of
industrial
production,
since
it
is
still
a
condition
that
each
detail
process
gone
through
by
the
product
must
be
capable
of
being
done
by
hand
and
of
forming,
in
its
way,
a
separate
handicraft.
It
is
just
because
handicraft
skill
continues,
in
this
way,
to
be
the
foundation
of
the
process
of
production,
that
each
workman
becomes
exclusively
assigned
to
a
partial
function,
and
that
for
the
rest
of
his
life,
his
labour-power
is
turned
into
the
organ
of
this
detail
function.
Secondly,
this
division
of
labour
is
a
particular
sort
of
co-operation,
and
many
of
its
disadvantages
spring
from
the
general
character
of
co-operation,
and
not
from
this
particular
form
of
it.
Section
2:
The
Detail
Labourer
and
his
Implements
If
we
now
go
more
into
detail,
it
is,
in
the
first
place,
clear
that
a
labourer
who
all
his
life
performs
one
and
the
same
simple
operation,
converts
his
whole
body
into
the
automatic,
specialised
implement
of
that
operation.
Consequently,
he
takes
less
time
in
doing
it,
than
the
artificer
who
performs
a
whole
series
of
operations
in
succession.
But
the
collective
labourer,who
constitutes
the
living
mechanism
of
manufacture,is
made
up
solely
of
such
specialised
detail
labourers.Hence,
in
comparison
with
the
independent
handicraft,more
is
produced
in
a
given
time,
or
the
productive
power
of
labour
is
increased.2Moreover,
when
once
this
fractional
work
is
established
as
the
exclusive
function
of
one
person,
the
methods
it
employs
become
perfected.
The
workman's
continued
repetition
of
the
same
simple
act,
and
the
concentration
of
his
attention
on
it,
teach
him
by
experience
how
to
attain
the
desired
effect
with
the
minimum
of
exertion.
But
since
there
are
always
several
generations
of
labourers
living
at
one
time,
and
working
together
at
the
manufacture
of
a
given
article,
the
technical
skill,
the
tricks
of
the
trade
thus
acquired,
become
established,and
are
accumulated
and
handed
down.3
Manufacture,
in
fact,
produces
the
skill
of
the
detail
labourer,
by
reproducing,
and
systematically
driving
to
an
extreme
within
the
workshop,
the
naturally
developed
differentiation
of
trades
which
it
found
ready
to
hand
in
society
at
large.
On
the
other
hand,the
conversion
of
fractional
work
into
the
life-calling
of
one
man,
corresponds
to
the
tendency
shown
by
earlier
societies,
to
make
trades
hereditary;
either
to
petrify
them
into
castes,
or
whenever
definite
historical
conditions
beget
in
the
individual
a
tendency
to
vary
in
a
manner
incompatible
with
the
nature
of
castes,to
ossify
them
into
guilds.
Castes
and
guilds
arise
from
the
action
of
the
same
natural
law,
that
regulates
the
differentiation
of
plants
and
animals
into
species
and
varieties,
except
that,
when
a
certain
degree
of
development
has
been
reached,
the
heredity
of
castes
and
the
exclusiveness
of
guilds
are
ordained
as
a
law
of
society.4
\"The
muslins
of
Dakka
in
fineness,
the
calicoes
and
other
piece
goods
of
Coromandel
in
brilliant
and
durable
colours,
have
never
been
surpassed.
Yet
they
are
produced
without
capital,
machinery,
division
of
labour,
or
any
of
those
means
which
give
such
facilities
to
the
manufacturing
interest
of
Europe.
The
weaver
is
merely
a
detached
individual,
working
a
web
when
ordered
of
a
customer,
and
with
a
loom
of
the
rudest
construction,
consisting
sometimes
of
a
few
branches
or
bars
of
wood,
put
roughly
together.
There
is
even
no
expedient
for
rolling
up
the
warp;
the
loom
must
therefore
be
kept
stretched
to
its
full
length,
and
becomes
so
inconveniently
large,
that
it
cannot
be
contained
within
the
hut
of
the
manufacturer,
who
is
therefore
compelled
to
ply
his
trade
in
the
open
air,
where
it
is
interrupted
by
every
vicissitude
of
the
weather.\"5
It
is
only
the
special
skill
accumulated
from
generation
to
generation,
and
transmitted
from
father
to
son,
that
gives
to
the
Hindu,
as
it
does
to
the
spider,this
proficiency.
And
yet
the
work
of
such
a
Hindu
weaver
is
very
complicated,
compared
with
that
of
a
manufacturing
labourer.
An
artificer,
who
performs
one
after
another
the
various
fractional
operations
in
the
production
of
a
finished
article,
must
at
one
time
change
his
place,
at
another
his
tools.
The
transition
from
one
operation
to
another
interrupts
the
flow
of
his
labour,
and
creates,so
to
say,
gaps
in
his
working
day.
These
gaps
close
up
so
soon
as
he
is
tied
to
one
and
the
same
operation
all
day
long;
they
vanish
in
proportion
as
the
changes
in
his
work
diminish.
The
resulting
increased
productive
power
is
owing
either
to
an
increased
expenditure
of
labour-power
in
a
given
time
i.e.,
to
increased
intensity
of
labour
or
to
a
decrease
in
the
amount
of
labour-power
unproductively
consumed.
The
extra
expenditure
of
power,
demanded
by
every
transition
from
rest
to
motion,
is
made
up
for
by
prolonging
the
duration
of
the
normal
velocity
when
once
acquired.On
the
other
hand,
constant
labour
of
one
uniform
kind
disturbs
the
intensity
and
flow
of
a
man's
animal
spirits,
which
find
recreation
and
delight
in
mere
change
of
activity.
The
productiveness
of
labour
depends
not
only
on
the
proficiency
of
the
workman,
but
on
the
perfection
of
his
tools.
Tools
of
the
same
kind,
such
as
knives,drills,
gimlets,
hammers,
&c.,
may
be
employed
in
different
processes;
and
the
same
tool
may
serve
various
purposes
in
a
single
process.
But
so
soon
as
the
different
operations
of
a
labour-process
are
disconnected
the
one
from
the
other,
and
each
fractional
operation
acquires
in
the
hands
of
the
detail
labourer
a
suitable
and
peculiar
form,
alterations
become
necessary
in
the
implements
that
previously
served
more
than
one
purpose.
The
direction
taken
by
this
change
is
determined
by
the
difficulties
experienced
in
consequence
of
the
unchanged
form
of
the
implement.
Manufacture
is
characterised
by
the
differentiation
of
the
instruments
of
labour
—a
differentiation
whereby
implements
of
a
given
sort
acquire
fixed
shapes,
adapted
to
each
particular
application,
and
by
the
specialisation
of
those
instruments,
giving
to
each
special
implement
its
full
play
only
in
the
hands
of
a
specific
detail
labourer.In
Birmingham
alone
500
varieties
of
hammers
are
produced,
and
not
only
is
each
adapted
to
one
particular
process,
but
several
varieties
often
serve
exclusively
for
the
different
operations
in
one
and
the
same
process.
The
manufacturing
period
simplifies,improves,
and
multiplies
the
implements
of
labour,
by
adapting
them
to
the
exclusively
special
functions
of
each
detail
labourer.6It
thus
creates
at
the
same
time
one
of
the
material
conditions
for
the
existence
of
machinery,
which
consists
of
a
combination
of
simple
instruments.
The
detail
labourer
and
his
implements
are
the
simplest
elements
of
manufacture.
Let
us
now
turn
to
its
aspect
as
a
whole.
Section
3:
The
Two
Fundamental
Forms
of
Manufacture:
Heterogeneous
Manufacture,
Serial
Manufacture
The
organisation
of
manufacture
has
two
fundamental
forms
which,
in
spite
of
occasional
blending,
are
essentially
different
in
kind,
and,
moreover,
play
very
distinct
parts
in
the
subsequent
transformation
of
manufacture
into
modern
industry
carried
on
by
machinery.
This
double
character
arises
from
the
nature
of
the
article
produced.
This
article
either
results
from
the
mere
mechanical
fitting
together
of
partial
products
made
independently,
or
owes
its
completed
shape
to
a
series
of
connected
processes
and
manipulations.
A
locomotive,
for
instance,
consists
of
more
than
5,000
independent
parts.
It
cannot,
however,
serve
as
an
example
of
the
first
kind
of
genuine
manufacture,for
it
is
a
structure
produced
by
modern
mechanical
industry.
But
a
watch
can;
and
William
Petty
used
it
to
illustrate
the
division
of
labour
in
manufacture.Formerly
the
individual
work
of
a
Nuremberg
artificer,the
watch
has
been
transformed
into
the
social
product
of
an
immense
number
of
detail
labourers,
such
as
mainspring
makers,
dial
makers,
spiral
spring
makers,jewelled
hole
makers,
ruby
lever
makers,
hand
makers,
case
makers,
screw
makers,
gilders,
with
numerous
subdivisions,
such
as
wheel
makers
(brass
and
steel
separate),
pin
makers,
movement
makers,acheveur
de
pignon
(fixes
the
wheels
on
the
axles,polishes
the
facets,
&c.),
pivot
makers,
planteur
de
finissage
(puts
the
wheels
and
springs
in
the
works),finisseur
de
barillet
(cuts
teeth
in
the
wheels,
makes
the
holes
of
the
right
size,
&c.),
escapement
makers,cylinder
makers
for
cylinder
escapements,
escapement
wheel
makers,
balance
wheel
makers,
raquette
makers(apparatus
for
regulating
the
watch),
the
planteur
d'échappement
(escapement
maker
proper);
then
the
repasseur
de
barillet
(finishes
the
box
for
the
spring,&c.),
steel
polishers,
wheel
polishers,
screw
polishers,figure
painters,
dial
enamellers
(melt
the
enamel
on
the
copper),
fabricant
de
pendants
(makes
the
ring
by
which
the
case
is
hung),
finisseur
de
charnière
(puts
the
brass
hinge
in
the
cover,
&c.),
faiseur
de
secret(puts
in
the
springs
that
open
the
case),
graveur,ciseleur,
polisseur
de
bote,
&c.,
&c.,
and
last
of
all
the
repasseur,
who
fits
together
the
whole
watch
and
hands
it
over
in
a
going
state.
Only
a
few
parts
of
the
watch
pass
through
several
hands;
and
all
these
membra
disjecta
come
together
for
the
first
time
in
the
hand
that
binds
them
into
one
mechanical
whole.
This
external
relation
between
the
finished
product,
and
its
various
and
diverse
elements
makes
it,
as
well
in
this
case
as
in
the
case
of
all
similar
finished
articles,
a
matter
of
chance
whether
the
detail
labourers
are
brought
together
in
one
workshop
or
not.
The
detail
operations
may
further
be
carried
on
like
so
many
independent
handicrafts,
as
they
are
in
the
Cantons
of
Vaud
and
Neufchatel;
while
in
Geneva
there
exist
large
watch
manufactories
where
the
detail
labourers
directly
co
operate
under
the
control
of
a
single
capitalist.
And
even
in
the
latter
case
the
dial,
the
springs,
and
the
case,
are
seldom
made
in
the
factory
itself.
To
carry
on
the
trade
as
a
manufacture,
with
concentration
of
workmen,
is,
in
the
watch
trade,
profitable
only
under
exceptional
conditions,
because
competition
is
greater
between
the
labourers
who
desire
to
work
at
home,
and
because
the
splitting
up
of
the
work
into
a
number
of
heterogeneous
processes,
permits
but
little
use
of
the
instruments
of
labour
in
common,
and
the
capitalist,
by
scattering
the
work,
saves
the
outlay
on
workshops,
&c.7Nevertheless
the
position
of
this
detail
labourer
who,
though
he
works
at
home,
does
so
for
a
capitalist
(manufacturer,
établisseur),
is
very
different
from
that
of
the
independent
artificer,
who
works
for
his
own
customers.8
The
second
kind
of
manufacture,
its
perfected
form,produces
articles
that
go
through
connected
phases
of
development,
through
a
series
of
processes
step
by
step,
like
the
wire
in
the
manufacture
of
needles,which
passes
through
the
hands
of
72
and
sometimes
even
92
different
detail
workmen.
In
so
far
as
such
a
manufacture,
when
first
started,combines
scattered
handicrafts,
it
lessens
the
space
by
which
the
various
phases
of
production
are
separated
from
each
other.
The
time
taken
in
passing
from
one
stage
to
another
is
shortened,
so
is
the
labour
that
effectuates
this
passage.9In
comparison
with
a
handicraft,
productive
power
is
gained,
and
this
gain
is
owing
to
the
general
co-operative
character
of
manufacture.
On
the
other
hand,
division
of
labour,
which
is
the
distinguishing
principle
of
manufacture,
requires
the
isolation
of
the
various
stages
of
production
and
their
independence
of
each
other.
The
establishment
and
maintenance
of
a
connexion
between
the
isolated
functions
necessitates
the
incessant
transport
of
the
article
from
one
hand
to
another,
and
from
one
process
to
another.
From
the
standpoint
of
modern
mechanical
industry,
this
necessity
stands
forth
as
a
characteristic
and
costly
disadvantage,
and
one
that
is
immanent
in
the
principle
of
manufacture.10
If
we
confine
our
attention
to
some
particular
lot
of
raw
materials,
of
rags,
for
instance,
in
paper
manufacture,
or
of
wire
in
needle
manufacture,
we
perceive
that
it
passes
in
succession
through
a
series
of
stages
in
the
hands
of
the
various
detail
workmen
until
completion.
On
the
other
hand,
if
we
look
at
the
workshop
as
a
whole,
we
see
the
raw
material
in
all
the
stages
of
its
production
at
the
same
time.The
collective
labourer,
with
one
set
of
his
many
hands
armed
with
one
kind
of
tools,
draws
the
wire,with
another
set,
armed
with
different
tools,
he,
at
the
same
time,
straightens
it,
with
another,
he
cuts
it,
with
another,
points
it,
and
so
on.
The
different
detail
processes,
which
were
successive
in
time,
have
become
simultaneous,
go
on
side
by
side
in
space.Hence,
production
of
a
greater
quantum
of
finished
commodities
in
a
given
time.11This
simultaneity,
it
is
true,
is
due
to
the
general
co-operative
form
of
the
process
as
a
whole;
but
Manufacture
not
only
finds
the
conditions
for
co-operation
ready
to
hand,
it
also,to
some
extent,
creates
them
by
the
sub-division
of
handicraft
labour.
On
the
other
hand,
it
accomplishes
this
social
organisation
of
the
labour-process
only
by
riveting
each
labourer
to
a
single
fractional
detail.
Since
the
fractional
product
of
each
detail
labourer
is,
at
the
same
time,
only
a
particular
stage
in
the
development
of
one
and
the
same
finished
article,each
labourer,
or
each
group
of
labourers,
prepares
the
raw
material
for
another
labourer
or
group.
The
result
of
the
labour
of
the
one
is
the
starting-point
for
the
labour
of
the
other.
The
one
workman
therefore
gives
occupation
directly
to
the
other.
The
labour
time
necessary
in
each
partial
process,
for
attaining
the
desired
effect,
is
learnt
by
experience;
and
the
mechanism
of
Manufacture,
as
a
whole,
is
based
on
the
assumption
that
a
given
result
will
be
obtained
in
a
given
time.
It
is
only
on
this
assumption
that
the
various
supplementary
labour-processes
can
proceed
uninterruptedly,
simultaneously,
and
side
by
side.
It
is
clear
that
this
direct
dependence
of
the
operations,and
therefore
of
the
labourers,
on
each
other,
compels
each
one
of
them
to
spend
on
his
work
no
more
than
the
necessary
time,
and
thus
a
continuity,
uniformity,
regularity,
order,12and
even
intensity
of
labour,
of
quite
a
different
kind,
is
begotten
than
is
to
be
found
in
an
independent
handicraft
or
even
in
simple
co
operation.
The
rule,
that
the
labour-time
expended
on
a
commodity
should
not
exceed
that
which
is
socially
necessary
for
its
production,
appears,
in
the
production
of
commodities
generally,
to
be
established
by
the
mere
effect
of
competition;
since,
to
express
ourselves
superficially,
each
single
producer
is
obliged
to
sell
his
commodity
at
its
market-price.
In
Manufacture,on
the
contrary,
the
turning
out
of
a
given
quantum
of
product
in
a
given
time
is
a
technical
law
of
the
process
of
production
itself.13
Different
operations
take,
however,
unequal
periods,and
yield
therefore,
in
equal
times
unequal
quantities
of
fractional
products.
If,
therefore,
the
same
labourer
has,
day
after
day,
to
perform
the
same
operation,there
must
be
a
different
number
of
labourers
for
each
operation;
for
instance,
in
type
manufacture,
there
are
four
founders
and
two
breakers
to
one
rubber:
the
founder
casts
2,000
type
an
hour,
the
breaker
breaks
up
4,000,
and
the
rubber
polishes
8,000.
Here
we
have
again
the
principle
of
co-operation
in
its
simplest
form,the
simultaneous
employment
of
many
doing
the
same
thing;
only
now,
this
principle
is
the
expression
of
an
organic
relation.
The
division
of
labour,
as
carried
out
in
Manufacture,
not
only
simplifies
and
multiplies
the
qualitatively
different
parts
of
the
social
collective
labourer,
but
also
creates
a
fixed
mathematical
relation
or
ratio
which
regulates
the
quantitative
extent
of
those
parts
i.e.,
the
relative
number
of
labourers,
or
the
relative
size
of
the
group
of
labourers,
for
each
detail
operation.
It
develops,
along
with
the
qualitative
sub
division
of
the
social
labour-process,
a
quantitative
rule
and
proportionality
for
that
process.
When
once
the
most
fitting
proportion
has
been
experimentally
established
for
the
numbers
of
the
detail
labourers
in
the
various
groups
when
producing
on
a
given
scale,
that
scale
can
be
extended
only
by
employing
a
multiple
of
each
particular
group.14There
is
this
to
boot,
that
the
same
individual
can
do
certain
kinds
of
work
just
as
well
on
a
large
as
on
a
small
scale;
for
instance,
the
labour
of
superintendence,
the
carriage
of
the
fractional
product
from
one
stage
to
the
next,
&c.
The
isolation
of
such
functions,
their
allotment
to
a
particular
labourer,
does
not
become
advantageous
till
after
an
increase
in
the
number
of
labourers
employed;
but
this
increase
must
affect
every
group
proportionally.
The
isolated
group
of
labourers
to
whom
any
particular
detail
function
is
assigned,
is
made
up
of
homogeneous
elements,
and
is
one
of
the
constituent
parts
of
the
total
mechanism.
In
many
manufactures,however,
the
group
itself
is
an
organised
body
of
labour,
the
total
mechanism
being
a
repetition
or
multiplication
of
these
elementary
organisms.
Take,for
instance,
the
manufacture
of
glass
bottles.
It
may
be
resolved
into
three
essentially
different
stages.
First,
the
preliminary
stage,
consisting
of
the
preparation
of
the
components
of
the
glass,
mixing
the
sand
and
lime,
&c.,
and
melting
them
into
a
fluid
mass
of
glass.15Various
detail
labourers
are
employed
in
this
first
stage,
as
also
in
the
final
one
of
removing
the
bottles
from
the
drying
furnace,
sorting
and
packing
them,
&c.
In
the
middle,
between
these
two
stages,comes
the
glass
melting
proper,
the
manipulation
of
the
fluid
mass.
At
each
mouth
of
the
furnace,
there
works
a
group,
called
\"the
hole,\"
consisting
of
one
bottlemaker
or
finisher,
one
blower,
one
gatherer,
one
putter-up
or
whetter-off,
and
one
taker-in.
These
five
detail
workers
are
so
many
special
organs
of
a
single
working
organism
that
acts
only
as
a
whole,
and
therefore
can
operate
only
by
the
direct
co-operation
of
the
whole
five.
The
whole
body
is
paralysed
if
but
one
of
its
members
be
wanting.
But
a
glass
furnace
has
several
openings
(in
England
from
4
to
6),
each
of
which
contains
an
earthenware
melting-pot
full
of
molten
glass,
and
employs
a
similar
five-membered
group
of
workers.
The
organisation
of
each
group
is
based
on
division
of
labour,
but
the
bond
between
the
different
groups
is
simple
co-operation,
which,
by
using
in
common
one
of
the
means
of
production,
the
furnace,
causes
it
to
be
more
economically
consumed.Such
a
furnace,
with
its
4-6
groups,
constitutes
a
glass
house;
and
a
glass
manufactory
comprises
a
number
of
such
glass
houses,
together
with
the
apparatus
and
workmen
requisite
for
the
preparatory
and
final
stages.
Finally,
just
as
Manufacture
arises
in
part
from
the
combination
of
various
handicrafts,
so,
too,
it
develops
into
a
combination
of
various
manufactures.The
larger
English
glass
manufacturers,
for
instance,make
their
own
earthenware
melting-pots,
because,on
the
quality
of
these
depends,
to
a
great
extent,
the
success
or
failure
of
the
process.
The
manufacture
of
one
of
the
means
of
production
is
here
united
with
that
of
the
product.
On
the
other
hand,
the
manufacture
of
the
product
may
be
united
with
other
manufactures,of
which
that
product
is
the
raw
material,
or
with
the
products
of
which
it
is
itself
subsequently
mixed.Thus,
we
find
the
manufacture
of
flint
glass
combined
with
that
of
glass
cutting
and
brass
founding;
the
latter
for
the
metal
settings
of
various
articles
of
glass.The
various
manufactures
so
combined
form
more
or
less
separate
departments
of
a
larger
manufacture,but
are
at
the
same
time
independent
processes,each
with
its
own
division
of
labour.
In
spite
of
the
many
advantages
offered
by
this
combination
of
manufactures,
it
never
grows
into
a
complete
technical
system
on
its
own
foundation.
That
happens
only
on
its
transformation
into
an
industry
carried
on
by
machinery.
Early
in
the
manufacturing
period,
the
principle
of
lessening
the
necessary
labour-time
in
the
production
of
commodities16,
was
accepted
and
formulated:
and
the
use
of
machines,
especially
for
certain
simple
first
processes
that
have
to
be
conducted
on
a
very
large
scale,
and
with
the
application
of
great
force,
sprang
up
here
and
there.
Thus,
at
an
early
period
in
paper
manufacture,
the
tearing
up
of
the
rags
was
done
by
paper-mills;
and
in
metal
works,
the
pounding
of
the
ores
was
effected
by
stamping
mills.17The
Roman
Empire
had
handed
down
the
elementary
form
of
all
machinery
in
the
water-wheel.18
The
handicraft
period
bequeathed
to
us
the
great
inventions
of
the
compass,
of
gunpowder,
of
type
printing,
and
of
the
automatic
clock.
But,
on
the
whole,
machinery
played
that
subordinate
part
which
Adam
Smith
assigns
to
it
in
comparison
with
division
of
labour.19The
sporadic
use
of
machinery
in
the
17th
century
was
of
the
greatest
importance,
because
it
supplied
the
great
mathematicians
of
that
time
with
a
practical
basis
and
stimulant
to
the
creation
of
the
science
of
mechanics.
The
collective
labourer,
formed
by
the
combination
of
a
number
of
detail
labourers,
is
the
machinery
specially
characteristic
of
the
manufacturing
period.The
various
operations
that
are
performed
in
turns
by
the
producer
of
a
commodity,
and
coalesce
one
with
another
during
the
progress
of
production,
lay
claim
to
him
in
various
ways.
In
one
operation
he
must
exert
more
strength,
in
another
more
skill,
in
another
more
attention;
and
the
same
individual
does
not
possess
all
these
qualities
in
an
equal
degree.
After
Manufacture
has
once
separated,
made
independent,and
isolated
the
various
operations,
the
labourers
are
divided,
classified,
and
grouped
according
to
their
predominating
qualities.
If
their
natural
endowments
are,
on
the
one
hand,
the
foundation
on
which
the
division
of
labour
is
built
up,
on
the
other
hand,Manufacture,
once
introduced,
develops
in
them
new
powers
that
are
by
nature
fitted
only
for
limited
and
special
functions.
The
collective
labourer
now
possesses,
in
an
equal
degree
of
excellence,
all
the
qualities
requisite
for
production,
and
expends
them
in
the
most
economical
manner,
by
exclusively
employing
all
his
organs,
consisting
of
particular
labourers,
or
groups
of
labourers,
in
performing
their
special
functions.20The
one-sidedness
and
the
deficiencies
of
the
detail
labourer
become
perfections
when
he
is
a
part
of
the
collective
labourer.21The
habit
of
doing
only
one
thing
converts
him
into
a
never
failing
instrument,
while
his
connexion
with
the
whole
mechanism
compels
him
to
work
with
the
regularity
of
the
parts
of
a
machine.22
Since
the
collective
labourer
has
functions,
both
simple
and
complex,
both
high
and
low,
his
members,the
individual
labour-powers,
require
different
degrees
of
training,
and
must
therefore
have
different
values.Manufacture,
therefore,
develops
a
hierarchy
of
labour-powers,
to
which
there
corresponds
a
scale
of
wages.
If,
on
the
one
hand,
the
individual
labourers
are
appropriated
and
annexed
for
life
by
a
limited
function;
on
the
other
hand,
the
various
operations
of
the
hierarchy
are
parcelled
out
among
the
labourers
according
to
both
their
natural
and
their
acquired
capabilities.23Every
process
of
production,
however,requires
certain
simple
manipulations,
which
every
man
is
capable
of
doing.
They
too
are
now
severed
from
their
connexion
with
the
more
pregnant
moments
of
activity,
and
ossified
into
exclusive
functions
of
specially
appointed
labourers.
Hence,
Manufacture
begets,
in
every
handicraft
that
it
seizes
upon,
a
class
of
so-called
unskilled
labourers,
a
class
which
handicraft
industry
strictly
excluded.
If
it
develops
a
one-sided
speciality
into
a
perfection,
at
the
expense
of
the
whole
of
a
man's
working
capacity,
it
also
begins
to
make
a
speciality
of
the
absence
of
all
development.Alongside
of
the
hierarchic
gradation
there
steps
the
simple
separation
of
the
labourers
into
skilled
and
unskilled.
For
the
latter,
the
cost
of
apprenticeship
vanishes;
for
the
former,
it
diminishes,
compared
with
that
of
artificers,
in
consequence
of
the
functions
being
simplified.
In
both
cases
the
value
of
labour-power
falls.24An
exception
to
this
law
holds
good
whenever
the
decomposition
of
the
labour-process
begets
new
and
comprehensive
functions,
that
either
had
no
place
at
all,
or
only
a
very
modest
one,
in
handicrafts.The
fall
in
the
value
of
labour-power,
caused
by
the
disappearance
or
diminution
of
the
expenses
of
apprenticeship,
implies
a
direct
increase
of
surplus
value
for
the
benefit
of
capital;
for
everything
that
shortens
the
necessary
labour-time
required
for
the
reproduction
of
labour-power,
extends
the
domain
of
surplus
labour.
Section
4:
Division
of
Labour
in
Manufacture,and
Division
of
Labour
in
Society
We
first
considered
the
origin
of
Manufacture,
then
its
simple
elements,
then
the
detail
labourer
and
his
implements,
and
finally,
the
totality
of
the
mechanism.We
shall
now
lightly
touch
upon
the
relation
between
the
division
of
labour
in
manufacture,
and
the
social
division
of
labour,
which
forms
the
foundation
of
all
production
of
commodities.
If
we
keep
labour
alone
in
view,
we
may
designate
the
separation
of
social
production
into
its
main
divisions
or
genera
–
viz.,
agriculture,
industries,
&c.,as
division
of
labour
in
general,
and
the
splitting
up
of
these
families
into
species
and
sub-species,
as
division
of
labour
in
particular,
and
the
division
of
labour
within
the
workshop
as
division
of
labour
in
singular
or
in
detail.25
Division
of
labour
in
a
society,
and
the
corresponding
tying
down
of
individuals
to
a
particular
calling,develops
itself,
just
as
does
the
division
of
labour
in
manufacture,
from
opposite
starting-points.
Within
a
family,26and
after
further
development
within
a
tribe,
there
springs
up
naturally
a
division
of
labour,caused
by
differences
of
sex
and
age,
a
division
that
is
consequently
based
on
a
purely
physiological
foundation,
which
division
enlarges
its
materials
by
the
expansion
of
the
community,
by
the
increase
of
population,
and
more
especially,
by
the
conflicts
between
different
tribes,
and
the
subjugation
of
one
tribe
by
another.
On
the
other
hand,
as
I
have
before
remarked,
the
exchange
of
products
springs
up
at
the
points
where
different
families,
tribes,
communities,come
in
contact;
for,
in
the
beginning
of
civilisation,it
is
not
private
individuals
but
families,
tribes,&c.,
that
meet
on
an
independent
footing.
Different
communities
find
different
means
of
production,and
different
means
of
subsistence
in
their
natural
environment.
Hence,
their
modes
of
production,and
of
living,
and
their
products
are
different.
It
is
this
spontaneously
developed
difference
which,when
different
communities
come
in
contact,
calls
forth
the
mutual
exchange
of
products,
and
the
consequent
gradual
conversion
of
those
products
into
commodities.
Exchange
does
not
create
the
differences
between
the
spheres
of
production,
but
brings
what
are
already
different
into
relation,
and
thus
converts
them
into
more
or
less
inter-dependent
branches
of
the
collective
production
of
an
enlarged
society.
In
the
latter
case,
the
social
division
of
labour
arises
from
the
exchange
between
spheres
of
production,
that
are
originally
distinct
and
independent
of
one
another.In
the
former,
where
the
physiological
division
of
labour
is
the
starting-point,
the
particular
organs
of
a
compact
whole
grow
loose,
and
break
off,
principally
owing
to
the
exchange
of
commodities
with
foreign
communities,
and
then
isolate
themselves
so
far,
that
the
sole
bond,
still
connecting
the
various
kinds
of
work,
is
the
exchange
of
the
products
as
commodities.In
the
one
case,
it
is
the
making
dependent
what
was
before
independent;
in
the
other
case,
the
making
independent
what
was
before
dependent.
The
foundation
of
every
division
of
labour
that
is
well
developed,
and
brought
about
by
the
exchange
of
commodities,
is
the
separation
between
town
and
country.27It
may
be
said,
that
the
whole
economic
history
of
society
is
summed
up
in
the
movement
of
this
antithesis.
We
pass
it
over,
however,
for
the
present.
Just
as
a
certain
number
of
simultaneously
employed
labourers
are
the
material
pre-requisites
for
division
of
labour
in
manufacture,
so
are
the
number
and
density
of
the
population,
which
here
correspond
to
the
agglomeration
in
one
workshop,
a
necessary
condition
for
the
division
of
labour
in
society.28Nevertheless,this
density
is
more
or
less
relative.
A
relatively
thinly
populated
country,
with
well-developed
means
of
communication,
has
a
denser
population
than
a
more
numerously
populated
country,
with
badly-developed
means
of
communication;
and
in
this
sense
the
Northern
States
of
the
American
Union,
for
instance,are
more
thickly
populated
than
India.29
Since
the
production
and
the
circulation
of
commodities
are
the
general
pre-requisites
of
the
capitalist
mode
of
production,
division
of
labour
in
manufacture
demands,
that
division
of
labour
in
society
at
large
should
previously
have
attained
a
certain
degree
of
development.
Inversely,
the
former
division
reacts
upon
and
develops
and
multiplies
the
latter.Simultaneously,
with
the
differentiation
of
the
instruments
of
labour,
the
industries
that
produce
these
instruments,
become
more
and
more
differentiated.30If
the
manufacturing
system
seize
upon
an
industry,which,
previously,
was
carried
on
in
connexion
with
others,
either
as
a
chief
or
as
a
subordinate
industry,and
by
one
producer,
these
industries
immediately
separate
their
connexion,
and
become
independent.
If
it
seize
upon
a
particular
stage
in
the
production
of
a
commodity,
the
other
stages
of
its
production
become
converted
into
so
many
independent
industries.
It
has
already
been
stated,
that
where
the
finished
article
consists
merely
of
a
number
of
parts
fitted
together,the
detail
operations
may
re-establish
themselves
as
genuine
and
separate
handicrafts.
In
order
to
carry
out
more
perfectly
the
division
of
labour
in
manufacture,a
single
branch
of
production
is,
according
to
the
varieties
of
its
raw
material,
or
the
various
forms
that
one
and
the
same
raw
material
may
assume,
split
up
into
numerous,
and
to
some
extent,
entirely
new
manufactures.
Accordingly,
in
France
alone,
in
the
first
half
of
the
18th
century,
over
100
different
kinds
of
silk
stuffs
were
woven,
and,
in
Avignon,
it
was
law,
that
\"every
apprentice
should
devote
himself
to
only
one
sort
of
fabrication,
and
should
not
learn
the
preparation
of
several
kinds
of
stuff
at
once.\"
The
territorial
division
of
labour,
which
confines
special
branches
of
production
to
special
districts
of
a
country,acquires
fresh
stimulus
from
the
manufacturing
system,
which
exploits
every
special
advantage.31The
Colonial
system
and
the
opening
out
of
the
markets
of
the
world,
both
of
which
are
included
in
the
general
conditions
of
existence
of
the
manufacturing
period,furnish
rich
material
for
developing
the
division
of
labour
in
society.
It
is
not
the
place,
here,
to
go
on
to
show
how
division
of
labour
seizes
upon,
not
only
the
economic,
but
every
other
sphere
of
society,and
everywhere
lays
the
foundation
of
that
all
engrossing
system
of
specialising
and
sorting
men,that
development
in
a
man
of
one
single
faculty
at
the
expense
of
all
other
faculties,
which
caused
A.Ferguson,
the
master
of
Adam
Smith,
to
exclaim:
\"We
make
a
nation
of
Helots,
and
have
no
free
citizens.\"32
精選分類
